ACCA F1 Accountant in Business - 2010 - Study text

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Chapter 10: Recruitment and selection

Job descriptions and person specifications

 Definitions

 Job descriptions

 The purpose of a job description

 Person specifications

 Rodger: seven-point plan

 Munro Fraser: five-point plan

3 Job descriptions and person specifications

3.1 Definitions

A job description is a formal description of a job, its purpose and scope, and the

formal duties and responsibilities of the job holder.

A person specification is a formal statement of the personal qualities and

characteristics of the type of person who should be expected to do the job well.

Both job descriptions and person specifications may be used in the selection process,

to identify the most suitable applicant for a job vacancy.

3.2 Job descriptions

A job description, as its name suggests, is a formal specification of a job. The

contents of a job description include:

 the job title

 the date the job description was prepared

 the name of the department or section in which the job is located, and/or the

physical location of the job

 the relationship of the job to other jobs in the organisation structure: in

particular:

- who is the ‘boss’ of the job holder?

- who, if anyone, are subordinates of the job holder?

- what is the relationship between the job and other jobs in the organisation?

 is the job a part of a team, and if so, what is the size of the team?

 the purpose of the job, and the objectives of the job in relation to the overall

objectives of the department or organisation

 the tasks associated with the job: the key tasks and principal duties. These tasks

should ideally be listed in order of importance. In addition, the job description

should indicate which tasks will take up most of the job holder’s time

 the responsibilities associated with the job

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 limits to the job holder’s authority

 the accountability of the job holder

 the salary range or wage range for the job

 conditions of employment – hours of work, whether weekend working or night-

time working might be required, the number of days of holiday entitlement each

year, and so on.

The job description may also specify the working conditions in which the job is

performed, for example an office environment or a type of factory environment.

If the job involves physical activity, such as carrying loads, the job description

should specify what these activities are.

It may also indicate future job opportunities and career development opportunities

that should be available to the job holder. (This information is relevant if the job

description is used to advertise the job for recruitment purposes.)

3.3 The purpose of a job description

A job description can be used for several purposes.

 It can be used in a job evaluation exercise. By preparing a job description for an

existing job, or for a new job that is being created, it should be possible to assess

whether the job involves too little or too much work for the job holder, and what

the rate of pay for the job ought to offer.

 A job description can be given to the job holder, so that he or she is aware of the

exact requirements of the job.

 It can be used to advertise a vacancy for the job, particularly if the vacancy is

being advertised internally within the organisation. For external advertising of

job vacancies, some of the information in the job description can be included in

the job advertisement.

 A job description might be used with a person specification in the recruitment

and selection of staff. The job description might help an employer to identify

the personal qualities that the job holder needs to do the job well. The employer

can then try to match the job with the most suitable individual. (This approach

to selection is described in more detail later.)

3.4 Person specifications

A person specification is a formal statement of the personal qualities that the job

holder should have in order to do the job well. It is based on:

 the job description and

 experience – an analysis of successful and unsuccessful job holders in the same

or similar jobs in the past.

The specification might include characteristics for the job holder such as

qualifications, work experience, age, physical characteristics, numerical or reading

ability, an ability to communicate, an ability to get on well with other people, and so

on.

Chapter 10: Recruitment and selection

A person specification is used in recruitment and selection:

 to advertise a job vacancy, the job advertisement may specify what are the

desirable or expected personal qualities of the individual who will be the

successful applicant

 in the selection process, applicants can be judged on the basis of whether they

seem to have the appropriate personal qualities for the job.

Two different approaches to the design of person specifications are:

 the seven-point plan of Alec Rodger, and

 the five-point plan of J Munro Fraser.

3.5 Rodger: seven-point plan

Alec Rodger (1952) provided a framework for collecting and analysing information

about a person’s individual strengths and weaknesses at work. He grouped the

personal characteristics into seven categories, and he suggested that interviewer

could use this analysis during the selection process for a job vacancy.

By asking questions relating to the seven categories of personal quality, the

interviewer could build up a personal profile of the candidate.

Roger suggested that the employer should identify the personal qualities required

to do the job well, and by comparing the personal qualities required for the job with

the personal qualities of the applicants, it should be possible to identify the most

suitable applicant for the job.

The seven points or seven categories of personal qualities in Rodger’s model were as

follows:

 Physical make-up. Does the applicant have an important physical defect? How

agreeable are the individual’s appearance, bearing and speech. (This means that

the interviewer will take note of what the individual is wearing and his or her

general appearance.) For some jobs, height might be an important physical

characteristic.

 Attainments. Attainments refer to the education, qualifications and work

experience of the individual. What type of education has the individual had, and

what are his or her academic qualifications? Does the individual have any

occupational qualifications, or professional qualifications? What is the

occupational training and experience of the individual?

 General intelligence. How much general intelligence does the individual have?

In the selection process, applicants might be tested for their general intelligence,

particularly where the employer believes that a high level of intelligence is a

necessary requirement for the job.

 Special aptitudes. The individual may have some special aptitudes, such as:

- a mathematical ability

- manual dexterity

- an ability with words or figures.

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 Interests. The individual’s interests are included as a category of personal

characteristic. These can be classified as intellectual (for example, playing chess),

practical, physically active (for example, sports), social or artistic. Interests

therefore help to define an individual’s personality.

 Disposition. ‘Disposition’ refers to the way in which an individual thinks and

behaves, particularly in relation to other people. A person might be open and

honest, or quiet and secretive. A person might have a manner that makes it easy

(or difficult) for other people to accept him. An individual might be dependable,

or self-reliant.

 Circumstances. ‘Circumstances’ refer to the domestic circumstances in which the

individual lives. For example, does the individual live alone or with a large

family? The circumstances in which an individual lives might affect his or her

availability for work at different times of the day or week.

Rodger suggested that the personal characteristics of job applicants should be

matched with the personal requirements for the job holder. He grouped the

personal requirements for the job into five categories:

 intellectual requirements

 practical requirements

 physical activity requirements

 working with other people

 artistic requirements.

Rodger’s seven-point plan might seem logical, but it has limitations and

weaknesses.

 It matches individuals with jobs on the basis of superficial information about the

individual.

 It matches individuals with jobs on the basis of assumptions about the qualities

required to do a job well, but these assumptions might be incorrect.

 It ignores individual choice. It is important to consider the type of job that an

individual wants to do, not just the type of job that he or she seems well-suited

for.

3.6 Munro Fraser: five-point plan

Another approach to matching personality with jobs was suggested by J Munro

Fraser (1958). This approach, which he called a Five Point Plan, was based on

grading candidates for a job vacancy according to five personal qualities.

 Impact on other people. This is the impact or effect that the individual has on

other people. An individual’s qualities are graded according to factors such as

physical make-up and appearance, way of speaking and general manner.

 Qualifications. These are the acquired knowledge and experience of the

individual, including academic education and qualifications, work experience,

vocational training and vocational or professional qualifications.

Chapter 10: Recruitment and selection

 Brains and abilities. The individual is also graded according to his or her

abilities, such as ‘brains’, quickness of understanding, aptitude for learning and

so on.

 Motivation. The individual is graded according to:

- his or her determination and motivation to pursue and achieve individual

goals, and

- his or her success rate in achieving them.

 Adjustment. ‘Adjustment’ refers to the emotional stability of the individual and

his or her ability to get on well with other people and to handle stress.

Munro Fraser suggested, in a similar way to Rodger, that to select an individual for

a job, the personal qualities of the individual should be matched with the personal

characteristics required to do the job well.

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Job analysis

 Definition and purpose of job analysis

 Methods of job analysis

 The information gathered for analysis

 The skills required for job analysis

 Justifying the use of job analysis

4 Job analysis

4.1 Definition and purpose of job analysis

Job analysis involves an examination of the characteristics and requirements of a job.

There are many definitions of job analysis. Some useful definitions are given below.

 Job analysis is ‘the determination of the essential characteristics of a job in order

to produce a job specification’ (British Standards Institute). Note: a job

specification is a job description, but might also include the personal qualities

that the job holder requires.

 Job analysis is ‘a detailed examination of a job to determine the duties, responsibilities

and specialised requirements necessary for its performance’ (NASA).

Some definitions of job analysis emphasise the use of job analysis to produce both

job descriptions and person specifications for a job.

 Job analysis is ‘the first step in the employee recruitment process and [it]

involves gaining the correct information relating to the vacant job, to allow an

accurate job description and person specification to be drawn up.’

 Job analysis is ‘the systematic, formal study of the duties and responsibilities

that comprise job content. The process seeks to obtain important and relevant

information about the nature and level of the work performed and the

specifications required for an incumbent to perform the job at a competent level.’

On the other hand, the definition of job analysis might emphasise the analysis of the

job content rather than the personal characteristics that the job holder needs:

 Job analysis is ‘the process of collecting, analysing and setting out information

about the content of jobs in order to provide the basis for a job description and

data for recruitment, training, job evaluation and performance management. Job

analysis concentrates on what job holders are expected to do.’

The purpose of job analysis

Job analysis may have any of the following purposes.

 It is a starting point for preparing a job description and person specification for

a job. It is therefore useful for recruitment (advertising a job) and selection.

Chapter 10: Recruitment and selection

 It is used for job evaluation. Job evaluation is the process of studying a job, and

comparing one job with other jobs, to decide what the job is ‘worth’ in terms of:

- salary or wage, and

- in a large organisation, ranking or grading.

 By identifying the responsibilities for a particular job, it can help with

organisation structure, and deciding what the boundaries of authority for each

job should be.

 By identifying the specialised skills for a particular job, it can help management

to plan a training programme for the job holder.

 Job analysis can also be used when job content is reviewed. When changes are

planned in the content and responsibilities of jobs, a useful starting point is to

identify the current content and responsibilities of jobs, so that the changes that

are needed can then be identified and made.

4.2 Methods of job analysis

Job analysis involves finding out answers to the following questions:

 What are the tasks of the job holder?

 How much time is taken up by each task?

 Which tasks are the most important?

 What skills are required to do the tasks properly?

 What decisions does the job holder have the authority to make?

There are three main ways of obtaining this information, and all three methods

might be used for the same job analysis. These methods are:

 Observation. The analyst can observe the job holder at work over a period of

time, and record what the job holder does in that period.

 Interviews. The analyst can ask questions about the job and what the job holder

does, by interviewing:

- the job holder, and

- the job holder’s boss.

 Questionnaires. The job analyst might use questionnaires or checklists when

conducting interviews, to make sure that all the important questions are asked

and nothing is forgotten. Questionnaires might also be used without interviews,

to obtain information from large numbers of job holders. The job holders can be

asked to answer the questions in the questionnaire and submit the completed

questionnaire for analysis.

A systematic approach to job analysis might be carried out in four stages. These four

stages apply where the job is not currently vacant.

 Stage 1. Collect all the available documentation about the job and its content.

Analyse this documentary evidence.

 Stage 2. Interview the manager (or managers) in charge about the job, and what

he or she considers to be the nature of the job, its importance, and the tasks and

responsibilities involved.

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 Stage 3. Interview the job holder and ask the same questions about the job.

Compare any differences of perception between the manager and the job holder.

 Stage 4. Observe the job holder doing the job.

The information gathered at all four stages of the process should then be analysed,

and a job analysis prepared.

4.3 The information gathered for analysis

The information gathered during a job analysis exercise can be divided into eight

categories:

Category Comment

Purpose

The reason for the job or activity. The purpose of a job

should be described within the context of the

organisation as a whole and its objectives.

Content

The tasks that the job holder is required to perform.

Accountability

What results or performance is the job holder

responsible for, and to whom is the job holder

accountable?

Performance criteria

What are the measurements of performance by which

the job holder is judged? What is used to assess

whether the job holder is performing well or badly?

Responsibility

What is the decision-making responsibility of the job

holder? To what extent are these decisions routine

(‘programmed’) and to what extent does the job holder

need to use discretion or judgement?

Position in the

organisation

Who does the job holder report to? Does the job holder

have line management responsibility, or is the job

holder a staff adviser?

Career development

What job development and career development

opportunities are available for the job holder?

Environmental factors

Environmental factors relate to the working conditions,

such as working surroundings, hours of work, health

and safety issues, and so on.

4.4 The skills required for job analysis

A job analysis might be carried out by senior management, or the boss of the job

holder. However, job analysis calls for some specialist skills. The job analyst needs

to know what information to look for, and what questions to ask. The analyst must

also be able to carry out the analysis, and apply the analysis to its specific purpose,

such as:

 preparing job description and person analysis for the job, or

 evaluating the job, and deciding what level of wage or salary is appropriate, and

how the job should be ranked or graded in the organisation hierarchy.

Chapter 10: Recruitment and selection

The individuals who carry out job analysis may even be external management

consultants. External analysts have the advantage of impartiality and objectivity in

their analysis. External agencies should also have a well-established method of job

analysis that has been proved from experience to work well.

4.5 Justifying the use of job analysis

Job analysis is a time-consuming exercise, and can be expensive. It is only justified if

the expected benefits from analysis are greater than the costs.

The benefits of job analysis come from the information that is obtained about the

content of a job and the personal qualities that the job holder requires.

Job analysis is difficult to justify when … Job analysis may be justified when …

Job content is already well-defined, and

there are already formal job descriptions

and person specifications for jobs.

Creating job descriptions and person

specifications will improve the quality

of recruitment and selection.

Job content within the organisation is

continually changing, because the

organisation exists in a rapidly-changing

environment. Job analysis might be

difficult to justify if it will become out-of-

date within a short time.

The organisation wishes to carry out a

job evaluation exercise, to review wages

and salaries and job grades, or in order

to re-design the content of some jobs.

There are a lot of jobs to analyse, and the

cost of analysis might therefore be very

high.

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The changing nature of employment

 Changing attitudes to work

 Charles Handy: the shamrock organisation

5 The changing nature of employment

5.1 Changing attitudes to work

In some countries, attitudes to work are changing. The pace of change varies

between different countries, but in some countries (such as the UK) they are

affecting the type of work that individuals want to do, and the type of employee

that organisations want to recruit and use.

For workers, a significant development has been the increasing reluctance of

individuals to work full time for large and formally-structured organisations.

 More people are choosing to work from their home. It is relatively easy for

individuals to set up an ‘office’ at home, with internet and telecommunications

links.

 They are seeking more job satisfaction, possibly through flexible working.

 There is likely to be an increase in portfolio working, where individuals do part-

time work or contract work for a number of different employers.

 There may be an increase in downshifting, where individuals are prepared to

sacrifice some income (and earn less money) in return for a better quality of life

with much less stress.

Attitudes of employers are also changing.

 The concept of a ‘job for life’ is less prevalent than in the past. Employees might

expect new recruits to remain with them for only a short time, perhaps a few

years, before most of them move on to another job with another employer.

 There is a growing trend towards ‘flatter organisations’ with fewer layers of

management in the organisation hierarchy. Flatter organisations are more

efficient and responsive to change, because communication and decision-making

are much quicker and are not held up as they go up and down through a chain

of command.

 As technology advances, employees must have relevant skills and education. As

long as the world economy is growing, there is likely to be a shortage of skilled

labour. One way of dealing with the shortage is to use individuals part-time or

to outsource activities to sub-contractors.

5.2 Charles Handy: the shamrock organisation

Charles Handy (in the Age of Unreason, 1989) identified changes in the nature of

organisations and employment, and predicted a movement towards ‘shamrock

organisations’.

ACCA F1 Accountant in Business - 2010 - Study text - Emile Woolf Publishing

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