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cial isolation, heightened visibility, and accusations of role violations (“You

don’t belong here”). Research on women of color who are double tokens, such as

the African American women firefighters studied by Yoder and Aniakudo (1997)

and the African American women police officers studied by Martin (1994), shows

that these women faced, in both studies, insufficient instruction, coworker hostil-

ity, silence, overly close and punitive supervision, lack of support, and stereotyp-

ing—an unwavering message of exclusion and a hope that she would fail (Yoder &

Aniakudo, 1997). These studies suggest that both race and gender are barriers to

these women’s satisfaction and success. As one African American firefighter put

it, “being a black female—it was like two things needed to be proven” (Yoder &

Aniakudo, 1997, p. 336).

Sexual harassment also continues to be a major problem in the workplace,

with serious consequences for both women and organizations. Sexual harass-

ment is described in detail by authors such as Fitzgerald (1993), Koss et al.

(1994), and Norton (2002). Research now distinguishes two categories of sexual

harassment: quid pro quo harassment and hostile environment harassment. Quid

pro quo harassment refers to situations in which an employee is asked to give in to

a superv

isor’s sexual demands in exchange for pay, a promotion, or continued

employment, with the implied threat of loss of raise or promotion, or loss of em-

ployment, if the employee refuses to comply. Hostile environment harassment refers

to instances where the employee is subject to sexual innuendo, sexist or sexually

oriented comments, physical touching, or sexually oriented posters or cartoons

placed in the work area. The issue here is making women workers sex objects at

work. Women are there to make a living and advance their careers, and sexual ha-

rassment can seriously interfere with those aims.

Although sexual harassment is not limited to men harassing women—women

can harass men, and same-sex harassment can also occur—the vast majority

(90%) of complaints involve men harassing women. On the basis of large-scale

surveys of working women, Fitzgerald (1993) estimated that one of every two will

be harassed during their work lives. Gutek (1985) reported even greater likeli-

hoods of harassment for Hispanic and African American women. Although re-

sponses to sexual harassment are beyond the scope of this chapter, sexual

harassment is a major barrier to women’s equity in the workplace. Research has

shown decreases in job satisfaction and organizational commitment, job with-

drawal, increased symptoms of anxiety and depression, and higher levels of

stress-related illness as responses to sexual harassment (Norton, 2002). These are

mental health as well as economic issues and can seriously compromise job per-

formance and job satisfaction.

Another of the persistent conditions affecting women’s equity in the work-

place and their job satisfaction is that although their workforce participation has

increased dramatically, their work at home has not decreased. Although multiple

roles are, in general, positive for mental health, the picture becomes more com-

plex when women are expected to shoulder the major burden of homemaking and

child care. As well stated by Barnett and Hyde (2001), “there are upper limits to

the benefits of multiple roles” (p. 789) when the number of roles becomes too

great or the demands of one role become excessive—this would seem to apply to

the case where the woman is now expected to cope with two full-time jobs, one

outside and the other inside the home. Instead of “having it all,” women are

“doing it all” (Fitzgerald & Harmon, 2001, p. 215).

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Women’s Career Development 267

Research suggests that few men view parenting and homemaking as their re-

sponsibility—they are primarily available to “help out” (Farmer, 1997). Yoder

(1999) summarized data showing that, on average, women in married couples do

33 hours of household chores weekly, compared to 14 for their husbands. This

constitutes 70% of the workload for women and 30% for men, not including child

care. With child care, these women are working a full-time job at home, in addi-

tion to what they are doing at work. These figures describe African American

and Latina/Latino couples as well. Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg

noted that there could be no equity in the workplace until men assume equal

sharing of homemaking and parenting roles (Farmer, 1997).

A related problem is the lack of organizational structures and support systems

for employees with families. Subsidized child or elder care, paid family leave,

flextime, job sharing, and telecommuting can greatly ease the burdens of manag-

ing home, family, and careers, burdens carried mostly by women (Fitzgerald &

Harmon, 2001). The United States is still the only developed country in the world

without a national child-care policy or a systematic means of addressing the seri-

ous problems of elder care (Fitzgerald & Harmon).

SUPPORTS FOR CAREER ADJUSTMENT

The title of Richie et al.’s (1997) study of highly achieving African American and

White women—“Persistence, Connection, and Passion” (p. 133)—summarizes

some of the supports for women’s achievement of their career goals. These might

also be viewed as strengths of women, which carry them through or enable them

to surmount the barriers they confront. These strengths have also been repli-

cated in a number of studies of highly achieving women (Reddin, 1997; Gomez

et al., 2001).

Persistence is critical to succeeding in the face of obstacles, and strong self-

efficacy expectations for an individual’s career, self-esteem, and a strong sense of

purpose are essential to persistence. The characteristics of instrumentality dis-

cussed previously—the sense of being in control of your own life and destiny, of

being agentic, able to act on your own behalf—are also important to persistence.

Related to both self-efficacy and instrumentality is coping efficacy, which plays

an increasingly important role in Lent et al.’s (2000) Social Cognitive Career The-

ory. As stated, “when confronted with adverse contextual conditions, persons

with a strong sense of coping efficacy (beliefs regarding one’s capabilities to nego-

tiate particular environmental obstacles) may be more likely to persevere toward

their goals....” (Lent etal., 2000, p. 76). Gomez et al. (2001) found coping strate-

gies especially important to their highly achieving Latinas, as did Richie et al.

(1997) with highly achieving African Americans and White women. Gomez et al.

list “tenacity and persistence; flexibility; creativity; reframing and redefining

challenges, barriers, or mistakes; maintaining a balanced perspective in under-

standing how racism and sexism may affect career-related behaviors; developing

support networks congruent with personal style, values, and culture; and devel-

oping bicultural skills where applicable” (p. 298).

Connection refers to the essential part played by familial and peer/friend sup-

port in facilitating persistence in the individual’s goals. There is ample literature

documenting the importance of family, including spouse and children, friends

both at work and outside of work, and mentors. This importance has been shown

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for women of color as well as for White women. For example, Gilbert (1994) and

Gomez et al. (2001) discussed the crucial role of a supportive spouse in managing

both career and home and family responsibilities; Gomez et al. (2001) reported

that supportive families were crucial in maintaining women’s career commitment

after the birth of children. In addition, Richie et al. (1997) emphasized the impor-

tance of interconnectedness with others in the continuing high achievement of

both African American and White women. Connection may also be facilitated by a

feminist orientation, which gives a woman a sense of community beyond herself.

Feminist orientation has consistently been shown to be a facilitative factor in

women’s career achievements (Fassinger, 1990; Stafford, 1984).

Finally, passion is for some women loving what they do and, for others, feeling

that they had made a difference in the world (Gomez et al., 2001). For some women,

this is the sense of a life’s calling. Although not all people are lucky enough to have

such a passion in their work, helping people make choices that take their interests

and passions into account is a worthy goal of the career counselor.

EDUCATIONAL AND COUNSELING INTERVENTIONS

The preceding sections of this chapter have emphasized the importance to

women of successful career development as well as success in their personal re-

lationships, yet have also outlined ways in which women continue to lag behind

men in both the variety of career options they consider and the subsequent suc-

cess in these pursuits. Counselors and educators may be able to help women to

close these gaps. In general, suggestions for interventions can be divided into

those facilitating the career choice process and those enabling the career adjust-

ment process.

OUNSELING FOR

AREER

HOICE

Because a sexist society and stereotypic socialization have often stood in the way

of women’s pursuit of a full range of career options, research supports overt at-

tempts to restore options that society has taken away. In other words, counselors

and psychologists need to remain aware of the possible impact of sexism and

stereotyping in concert with null environments and to accept the role of active

options restorers. More specifically, the following guidelines in counseling

women in the process of making educational and career decisions are derived

from the literature reviewed in the first part of this chapter.

1. Encourage high-quality and extensive education and training. Do not over-

look the importance of technical schools, two-year and community colleges,

and the military for excellent training and education.

2. Adopt the rule that no one can take too much math. Encourage young

women to stay in math coursework as long as possible. Math background

opens options and prevents others from being eliminated by default.

3. When in doubt, stress decisions that eliminate the fewest options, such as

staying in school and continuing in math.

4. Define the counselor role as a catalyst for the creation of new learning expe-

riences for the client, so that she can fully develop all her capabilities, in-

cluding those not reinforced by traditional gender stereotyping.

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Women’s Career Development 269

5. Explore the client’s outcome expectations and barriers to her goal pursuits,

with the idea of helping her to develop coping mechanisms, coping self-

efficacy, and barrier-surmounting sources of social support.

6. Remember that all it takes is one supportive counselor, teacher, or parent to

enrich the null environment.

7. Assess the role of culture and ethnicity in the client’s career planning. Help

her to make decisions that, as far as possible, integrate her individual and

cultural values.

8. Integrate career theories as appropriate in counseling practice.

SING

AREER

HEORIES TO

UIDE

RACTICE

All of the major theories of career development are relevant to career choice coun-

seling with women. For example, Super’s (1980, see also Savickas, Chapter 3, this

volume) views of lifelong career development and life planning stress a holistic

approach to careers and take into account multiple life roles. Gottfredson’s theory

explicitly incorporates the idea of occupational sex type as a central mechanism

in the circumscription of career options. Social cognitive theory supports the idea

of continuing growth through the individual’s lifetime as a result of new learning

experiences and new ideas. More detailed suggestions for the uses of social cog-

nitive and trait-factor theories in career choice counseling with women follow.

Social Cognitive Theory Counselors should informally or formally assess a

client’s self-efficacy beliefs for career fields. Informal assessment may include

general questions about her beliefs in her competence in domains relevant to her

career decision making, performance, or advancement. For a young woman, ask

questions such as:

•“What would you ideally like to do for a career?”

•“What is holding you back from your ideal?”

•“What career fantasies have you had and what keeps you from pursuing

them?”

•“What careers would you pursue if you thought you could do anything?”

The purpose of these questions is to identify self-imposed limits on what she can

do. It may be that these are realistic limits if the girl or woman does not have the

aptitude for that area, but the real contribution of self-efficacy is that it focuses

our attention on people who are unrealistically underestimating their capabili-

ties. The evidence is clear that women are particularly prone to underestimate

their capabilities and must accordingly have these beliefs challenged. Further

probing when a young woman reports herself unable to master a specific domain

of behavior should focus on the quality of her background experiences—if she

dropped out of math in 10th grade because “math was for boys,” then it is no

wonder she lacks confidence and competence in math.

Low self-efficacy for career tasks and fields, because it leads to avoidance, can

become a self-fulfilling prophecy—we avoid what we fear, so we don’t learn it and

never become good at it, verifying our perceptions of ourselves as incompetent.

Someone, often a counselor, needs to help her break this vicious circle. The coun-

selor should refuse to accept “I can’t” for an answer unless and until the client

has made a serious attempt to learn it, to master it.

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In addition to the informal assessment of self-efficacy, there are now a large

number of inventories assessing self-efficacy with respect to career behaviors

(see Betz, 2000, for a review). Measures of career decision self-efficacy (Betz,

Klein, & Taylor, 1996), math self-efficacy (Lopez, Lent, Brown, & Gore, 1997),

career search self-efficacy (Solberg et al., 1994), and self-efficacy for the Holland

themes (Betz, Harmon, & Borgen, 1996) are available. A new inventory of self-

efficacy with respect to 17 basic domains of vocational activity such as leader-

ship, writing, science, public speaking, and using technology is available (the

Expanded Skills Confidence Inventory; Betz et al., 2003).

Self-efficacy measures may also be used jointly with parallel vocational interest

measures—for example, the General Occupational Themes of the Strong Interest

nventory measuring the resemblance of the client to each of Holland’s six per-

sonality types (see Spokane & Cruza-Guet, Chapter 2, this volume) now have par-

allel self-efficacy measures for the six types in the Skills Confidence Inventory

(Betz, Harmon, & Borger, 1996).

Using these two measures jointly, the counselor looks for themes on which

the client has both high interests and high self-efficacy—these themes repre-

sent good possibilities for career exploration. However, areas of high interest

but lower efficacy can be options if efficacy can be increased through interven-

tions based on Bandura’s (1997) theory (see Brown & Lent, 1996, for some other

suggestions). Self-efficacy interventions are based on Bandura’s four sources of

efficacy information and should, therefore, ideally include performance accom-

plishments, vicarious learning or modeling, managing anxiety, and providing

support and encouragement. In planning for successful performance accom-

plishments, opportunities should be sought where success is at first virtually

ensured, and only after some success experiences (allowing a moderate degree

of self-efficacy to be established) should more difficult challenges be faced.

Community or technical colleges offering entry-level or remedial courses, adult

education programs, and programmed learning materials may be good sources

for such learning.

In using modeling, the counselor would need to locate people who have suc-

ceeded in the area in which the client lacks self-efficacy. It is helpful, though not

essential, if these models are the same race and gender of the individual, and this

may be especially true if the domain of behavior is nontraditional for that per-

son’s gender. For example, a woman teaching automobile maintenance and repair

or carpentry to other women will provide helpful modeling influences because

these are traditionally male domains. Similarly, a man teaching parenting to

young men would provide the additional benefit of modeling a nontraditional

competency. Models can be in person, on film, television, books, or via other

media. For example, a book on the life of a female astronaut or scientist could pro-

vide useful modeling for a young girl considering these fields.

The third component of an efficacy-enhancing intervention is anxiety man-

agement. Learning new things may be associated with anxiety, particularly if

they are gender-nontraditional domains. If a domain such as math has been asso-

ciated with males and if a woman has internalized a message of “Girls can’t do

math,” anxiety will likely accompany new learning efforts. Thus, teaching anxi-

ety management techniques may also be appropriate. Relaxation training and

learning to consciously focus self-talk on the task at hand rather than on the self

can be helpful.

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Women’s Career Development 271

Finally, the counselor can serve as the client’s cheerleader as she tries new

things. This role includes generally encouraging her that she can do it and, more

specifically, reinforcing her efforts as she tries new things. Helping her set goals,

reinforcing her when she achieves them, and helping her to try again when she

has temporarily faltered are important. Finally, the counselor can counter beliefs

(such as “Girls can’t do math”) that are getting in her way.

In addition to assessing self-efficacy expectations, outcome expectations

should be assessed. This is especially true for women of color, who may expect

more barriers to their success than do White women. Similarly, women wishing

to pursue traditionally male-dominated occupations may have concerns about the

extent to which their efforts will lead to desired rewards and outcomes. Although

these concerns may be realistic, helping the client to consider coping strategies

and learn about typical organizational/institutional grievance procedures may

be helpful. Assertiveness training, learning to seek social support, and external-

izing rather than internalizing the causes of discrimination and harassment may

be useful.

Using the Matching (Trait-Factor) Model Trait-factor theories suggest that coun-

selors help young women to fully develop their abilities, talents, and interests.

Structured methods of ability and interest assessment have always been a useful

part of the assessment of these individuals, but there are a few additional consid-

erations as well.

First, where possible, use within-gender norms to highlight directions in which

a female client has developed in spite of gender role socialization. Many aptitude

and interest measures now provide same-sex norms (usually within-gender per-

centiles). For example, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery and Dif-

ferential Aptitude Test, two of the most widely used multiple aptitude batteries in

career counseling with high school students, provide within-gender percentiles as

well as combined group standard scores (see Walsh & Betz, 2001; Ryan Krane &

Tirre, Chapter 14, this volume). Most vocational interest inventories, for example,

the Strong Interest Inventory (see Hansen, Chapter 12, this volume), also now pro-

vide within-gender norms.

As with self-efficacy expectations, counselors should see the client as a work

in progress, not a finished product. New learning experiences and opportunities

can open the doors in terms of capabilities and interests, and counselors should

always ask questions enabling them to assess the relative richness versus poverty

of a woman’s previous educational and experiential background. If she has not

had a chance to learn something, then assume she can learn to do it, help her find

new learning opportunities, and help convince her that she can do it.

AREER

DUCATION AND

XPANDING

PTIONS

Farmer (1997) noted the crucial importance of career education in the schools.

Lack of guidance about how to prepare for higher education and occupations

and how to choose a career in the first place characterize many of our schools.

Farmer made suggestions for career education that can increase sex equity. For

example, girls might be introduced to a wider range of careers and urged to gain

information on those in science and engineering. The National Science Founda-

tion funds Project WISE (Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York),

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which sup

ports programs that involve high school women in science activities.

The project produces a booklet called The Future is Yours—Get Ready that describes

250 different occupations in the sciences and engineering (cf. Farmer, 1997). The

Girl Scouts of America sponsors a program called Bridging the Gap, designed to

help girls become involved in science and engineering (cf. Farmer, 1997). Many

colleges and universities now have programs to assist women enrolled in colleges

of engineering. Counselors should be aware of these resources and encourage tal-

ented girls and women to study them.

OUNSELING FOR

AREER

DJUSTMENT

For employed women, concerns usually fall in the areas of success/performance

and satisfaction. As was indicated previously, discrimination, sexual harassment,

tokenism, and lack of support represent a few barriers to women’s career success

and satisfaction. Additionally, the overload that may be experienced from two,

rather than one, full-time jobs for women taking full responsibility for family and

housework can be a major cause of decrements in both performance and satisfac-

tion. A few general guidelines may be useful:

1. Help women at work develop support systems.

2. Help change the system, or help clients change the system as it pertains to

flexible work schedules and family leave policies (ideally, which allow leave

for adoption as well as childbearing and for elder care, and which assume

that men are as willing to be responsible for those they love as are women).

3. Help token women (especially women of color) find support, often by

broadening the net that is cast to find support. For example, the lone woman

faculty member in chemistry may find support in a group consisting of all

the faculty women in the College of Sciences.

4. Teach women to expect full participation in homemaking and childrearing

from their husbands or partners. Teach men that it is their responsibility,

and also to their benefit, to participate fully in home and family life and

work.

5. Help women develop effective cognitive and behavioral coping strategies, as

discussed earlier in the section on supports for career adjustment.

For an adult woman considering career change or advancement, the counselor

should help her to explore areas of behavior where she feels her skills are holding

her back or preventing her from pursuing desired options. In many fields, technical

expertise is necessary but not sufficient to the pursuit of managerial or supervisory

roles in those areas—if she wishes to make such a move, her self-efficacy beliefs

concerning her managerial/leadership skills may be highly relevant to her per-

ceived options. Another assessment question might be, “What new skills would in-

crease your options or satisfaction, and what is stopping you from developing

these

new skills?” In many cases, the counselor will hear perceived self-efficacy—

self-doubts about competence and ability to move in a new direction—and should

be prepared to help a woman with such self-doubts to appraise accurately the com-

petencies and abilities she feels she is lacking.

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Women’s Career Development 273

There also may be cases where a woman is in an occupation with poor fit for

her abilities or interests. In such cases, going back to the beginning—doing a

comprehensive assessment of her abilities, interests, values, and self-perceptions—

may be the best place to start.

RGANIZATIONAL AND

TRUCTURAL

HANGE

We in psychology and counseling also have a responsibility to work for organiza-

tional, legal, and societal changes that will reduce sexism, stereotyping, discrim-

ination, and harassment and create more flexible and family-friendly workplaces

(Meara, 1997). In focusing on women’s career development and what is needed to

facilitate it, Harmon (1997) also noted that we may have shortchanged the other

side of the coin—that is, how to facilitate men’s development in homemaking and

childrearing roles. For example, as we as counselors provide support for women’s

working and help them gain self-efficacy for nontraditional careers, we should

also support men’s pursuits of nurturing roles and help them gain self-efficacy

with respect to nurturing and multiple role management. Gilbert (1994) and Har-

mon (1997) both suggest that it is time to develop theories that conceptualize ca-

reer development and family life in a more interactive way. Such theory

development would increase the satisfaction and well-being of both women and

men in multiple life roles.

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