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CHAPTER 21

Counseling for Retirement

Harvey L. Sterns and Linda Mezydlo Subich

HE DECISION TO

retire or continue working reflects a complex array of fac-

tors, including economic well-being, personal preference, subjective health,

attitudes about leisure, and the desire to continue work. Satisfaction with

current work and ability to continue work reflect normative aging, generational

differences, and unique life events of the older adult worker. Intervention in the

workplace in areas such as wellness promotion, training and retraining, and

human resources management may make work-life extension a more frequent

choice. The ultimate responsibility for maintaining professional competence rests

on the individual employee. At the same time, an organization can foster compe-

tence by providing updating opportunities, challenging work assignments, and

interaction with coworkers and management. Nonetheless, retirement is an op-

tion that most older workers consider at some time in their work lives. Older

workers often make this choice on their own; however, many are forced to make

the choice because of downsizing, early buyouts, and business closings. Many

people may want to continue to work and seek so-called bridge jobs before retire-

ment (Beehr & Bowling, 2002; Kim & Moen, 2001; Shultz, 2003; Sterns & Gray,

1999; Sterns & Huyck, 2001; Sterns & Subich, 2002).

Research on retirement indicates that in the 2000s we will need to carefully

weigh the importance of voluntary and involuntary decisions to retire and rele-

vant factors related to work satisfaction. For more than 30 years, a major empha-

sis has been on the positive aspects and normalcy of retirement and approaches

to facilitate the transition to retirement (Schlossberg, 2004). At the same time, the

United States stands as one of a small number of countries in its advocacy for the

rights of older adult workers to continue to work if they are capable and able.

There are multiple definitions of an older worker (i.e., chronological/legal,

functional, psychosocial, organizational, life span). Psychosocial and life-span

definitions of older workers are especially relevant for counseling applications.

Psychosocial d

efinitions (Sterns & Doverspike, 1989) are based on social percep-

tions, including age typing of occupations, perceptions of the older worker, and

the aging of knowledge, skill, and ability sets. The individual’s self-perception is

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Counseling for Retirement 507

also considered. How individuals perceive themselves and their careers at a given

age may be congruent or incongruent with societal image. Relatively little re-

search has addressed the basic question of how we know when workers will per-

ceive themselves, or be perceived by others, as old. Life-span definitions (Sterns &

Doverspike, 1989) emphasize that behavioral change can occur at any point in the

life cycle.

Another important influence in individual decision making about retirement

is the perception of timing norms. Timing norms are discussed as prescriptions

about when and how an individual retires, influenced by level of commitment to

the work organization, modes and styles of exiting, and pension incentives. Tim-

ing norms become the bearer of societal, firm level, or reference group preferences

or retirement (Ekerdt, 1998). Ekerdt’s analysis of the Health and Refinement Study

1992 baseline wave (ages 51 to 61) reveals support for the concept of a usual age for

retirement, which may vary in different work settings and occupational cate-

gories. Plan incentives influence timing of retirement behavior, and 85% of work-

ers reported that they planned to leave at or before the local, usual age for

retirement. In addition, more than 80% of respondents did not plan to work be-

yond the usual age.

A GENERAL MODEL OF RETIREMENT COUNSELING

A prominent model of retirement counseling is that of Richardson (1993). This

model served as the foundation for her classic book titled Retirement Counseling,

and it is composed of three phases: listening, assessment, and intervention. In the

listening phase, the counselor works to develop rapport with the client. Develop-

ing trust, being nonjudgmental, and aiding clients to reflect on their expectations

for, or experience of, retirement are some of the tasks of this first phase. Richard-

son highlighted the importance of attentive listening, genuineness, and accep-

tance by the counselor. She also emphasized the importance of identifying the

“precipitating problem” that led the client to seek assistance.

In the assessment phase, the magnitude of the retirement problem is assessed.

This includes determining the history of the issue, the client’s perception of its

severity, and the affect associated with the problem. In addition, Richardson rec-

ommended that the counselor obtain information about how the client is behav-

ing and what coping attempts are being made. The assessment must take into

consideration the client’s retirement phase; Richardson (1993) delineated three

critical phases of retirement: preretirement, retirement decision-making, and ad-

justment. These phases were deemed times when individuals face critical deci-

sions with implications for their future functioning, and different issues may be

more relevant to assess at each phase. Implicit in the assessment phase is that a

goal for change emerges from it.

Finally, Richardson (1993) described three distinct approaches to the interven-

tion phase of retirement counseling: nondirective, collaborative, and directive. In

the nondirective approach, the counselor is supportive and relies on the client’s

strengths and resources. This approach is recommended for mild concerns and fo-

cuses

on clients’ exploring and initiating action to resolve their issues. The collab-

orative approach is described as one where the counselor takes a more active role

in aiding clients to resolve their issues, often because clients’ concerns are more

serious. The counselor may actively educate clients, help brainstorm solutions,

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and guide them in their process of coming to a solution to the problem. In cases

where a client is extremely dysfunctional (e.g., severely depressed, suicidal, psy-

chotic),

Richardson recommended a directive approach to keep the client safe and

functioning adequately.

This model of retirement counseling seems consistent with many traditional

approaches to counseling (e.g., Corey & Corey, 1998; Egan, 1990; C. E. Hill &

O’Brien,

1999; Ivey, 2002). Its focus, like that of Hill and O’Brien or Ivey, for ex-

ample, is on connecting with the client and using the therapeutic relationship to

assist the client in setting and acting on a goal. With all but the most disturbed or

dysfunctional clients, the counselor relies on the client’s strengths and acts to

empower him or her to resolve the issue at hand. As such, Richardson’s (1993)

model is both well-connected to a body of research that supports the effective-

ness of relationship-based counseling and flexible enough to serve as a founda-

tion for varied retirement interventions.

RERETIREMENT

OUNSELING

One important determinant of what sort of intervention is needed by a client is

the person’s retirement phase. The initial phase of retirement, preretirement, is

described as generally occurring in midlife (Richardson, 1993), although the

exact timing of it varies widely across individuals. At that point, individuals rec-

ognize their future disengagement from the workforce and may begin thinking

about, talking about, or planning for this future point. Preretirement counseling

is most often described in terms of processing of client attitudes (e.g., Ferguson &

Koder, 1998; Geist, 1988; Waters, 1984) and aiding with client planning behavior

(e.g., Kalt & Kohn, 1975; Richardson, 1993). It most typically occurs in a group

setting and is likely to involve a strong educational component and a weaker focus

on the individual’s affective experience (Geist, 1988; Richardson, 1993).

Countless authors have outlined the preferred and actual topical content of

preretirement counseling programs (e.g., Dennis, 1984, 1986; Glass & Flynn, 2000;

Hunter, 1976; Kalt & Kohn, 1975; Pyron, 1969; Richardson, 1993; Tinsley & Bigler,

2002). Most typically, such programs are described as including a focus on pension

benefit information, health care information, and financial planning. These topics

also are reported as most strongly preferred by program consumers. Less typical

and less often requested is coverage of housing options, legal issues, lei

sure activ-

ities, and emerging marital or relationship issues. These latter issues, however,

are deemed by many retirement specialists as critical to consider in retirement

planning (Dennis, 2002; Hunter, 1976). Together, these content domains comprise

the educational component of most programs and often are covered straightfor-

wardly in a group format.

The lesser focus on clients’ affective experiences in most preretirement pro-

grams may be in part a function of their typical group format. Richardson (1993)

and others (e.g., Ferguson & Koder, 1998) have noted, however, the value of indi-

vidual preretirement counseling in certain instances and emphasized the need to

provide clients with a comfortable forum in which to share feelings and fears

about this life transition. Although data from Ferguson and Koder suggested that

the majority of their older adult sample had optimistic views of the future, a sizable

minority (16%) held a more negative view. Comparable data emerged from work

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Counseling for Retirement 509

Kimmel, Price, and Walker (1978), who found such views to predict

subsequent

retirement satisfaction. Individuals with negative retirement attitudes, then,

might be most likely to benefit from individual counseling sessions. This idea is

consistent with recommendations of many authors (e.g., Ferguson & Koder, 1998;

Richardson, 1993; Sterns, Weis, & Perkins, 1984). Indeed, Ferguson and Koder

suggested that more intensive individual preretirement counseling be targeted

specifically toward at-risk adults. Risk status may be indicated by characteristics

such as being in ill health, having a low income, facing involuntary retirement, or

lacking in social supports (Taylor & Doverspike, 2003).

The typically greater educative focus and lesser affective focus of preretirement

counseling may come together in that negative affect surrounding retirement

may

be a reflection of the person’s lack of knowledge and consequent anticipatory

anxiety. Indeed, Schlossberg, Troll, and Leibowitz (1978) suggested that role am-

biguity may underlie many preretirement concerns. Relatedly, Fretz, Kluge, Os-

sana, Jones, and Merikangas (1989) found that preretirement worry correlated

with inadequate information as well as with lesser retirement adjustment self-

efficacy, planfulness, and social support. Taking a social cognitive perspective, as

did Fretz et al., these correlates of retirement-related negative affect all are

amenable to intervention. We might follow Bandura’s (1986) general suggestions

concerning the use of information provision (vicarious modeling, verbal persua-

sion), skill development (mastery experiences), and anxiety reduction to help

clients build self-efficacy, facilitate goal-directed behaviors, and attain desired

outcomes in preretirement interventions.

General support for the value of preretirement counseling can be drawn from

Sterns and Gray (1999) as well as from Taylor and Doverspike (2003); both sets of

authors concluded that the research literature supports the notion that those who

plan for major life transitions are more successful at them. More specifically,

Sterns, Junkins, and Bayer (2001) reported that those who engaged in preretire-

ment programs gained more positive attitudes about retirement, improved in their

knowledge and planning, and were more satisfied subsequently with retirement.

Richardson (1993) summarized a variety of outcome research on preretirement

counseling and reported that modalities that incorporated both informatio

n pro-

vision and time for processing that information resulted in the most positive out-

comes (e.g., more planning behavior, feeling prepared). She warned that negative

outcomes seemed most likely when participants were not given an opportunity to

voice questions and concerns.

Taylor and Doverspike (2003) took a social cognitive perspective and suggested

that the observed positive relation between retirement planning behavior and

later retirement adjustment may reflect that, in planning, the individual develops

realistic expectations and goals for retirement. They noted that those expecta-

tions and goals in turn facilitate and guide the retirement process, and they urged

wider use of preretirement counseling to foster planning.

Indeed, one of the major goals of retirement education is the development of

key issues of retirement. Much of the emphasis is on consciousness-raising, val-

ues clarification, getting in touch with personal feelings, and awareness of view-

points held by significant others. Staudinger (1999) and Smith (1996) both have

presented important work on the development of planning capability, wisdom

concerning life events, and the development of an approach to the art of living.

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The literature and recommendations concerning preretirement counseling seem

consistent with the concept of the self-managed career (see Griffin & Hesketh

Chapter 20, this volume). Career self-management is carefully discussed by Hall

and Mirvis (1996) in their presentation of the protean career. A protean career is

directed by the individual rather than the employing organization. Greater re-

sponsibility for learning, skill mastery, and reskilling is also placed on the indi-

vidual (Hall & Mirvis, 1995). The individual is in charge, in control, and able to

change the shape of his or her career at will—similar to a free agent in sports

(Hall & Mirvis, 1996). This perspective and the goals of this type of career (e.g.,

psychological success, identity expansion, and learning) also recognize the artifi-

ciality of the distinction between work and nonwork life. Personal roles and ca-

reer roles are highly interrelated and the boundaries between these roles tend to

be fuzzy rather than clearcut (Hall & Mirvis, 1995). One disadvantage of protean

careers is that an individual’s identity is not likely to be tied to any one organiza-

tion; problems of self-definition may result in that an individual’s personal iden-

tity is not connected to a formal organizational work role.

This newer self-management perspective recalls, however, Jacobson’s conclu-

sion in 1974 that among his sample of British adults, no amount of preretirement

counseling could compensate for a lifelong pattern of poor/unhealthy personal

and financial habits. Similarly, Pellicano (1973) stated three decades ago: “To be

effective . . . retirement counseling must begin years before the employee actu-

ally retires” (p. 616). It seems that part of our challenge is to sensitize and to in-

volve persons in thinking about retirement at an early age.

ETIREMENT

ECISION

OUNSELING

Richardson’s (1993) second phase of retirement involves making the decision to

retire. Retirement decisions have been suggested to be influenced most strongly

by health concerns, financial resources, and attitudinal variables (Sterns & Gray,

1999). In addition, August and Quintero (2001) provided a detailed discussion of

how limited work opportunity structures for retired adults may affect the decision

to retire. Sterns and Gray cautioned, however, that the manner in which each of

hese domains influences decisions is complex and may depend on individual cir-

cum

stances. Richardson (1993) also generated an expansive list of issues that may

drive a decision to retire including finances, health, family circumstances, attitudes

about work and retirement, and personality variables. Her inclusion of psychoso-

cial

variables such as dual-earner relationship status and extent of socia

l support

network is an especially notable contribution to the literature; it is consistent with

newer models of career decision-making (Phillips, 1997; Phillips, Christopher-Sisk,

& Gravino, 2001; Schultheiss, Kress, Manzi, & Glasscock, 2001) and with research

on critical factors in career counseling (Brown & Ryan Krane, 2000).

Focusing more specifically on the decision to retire early, Feldman (1994) sug-

gested that individual differences (e.g., health status, attitude toward work), op-

portunity structures (e.g., age-related performance decrements), organizational

factors (e.g., pension, flexible policies), and external environmental factors (e.g.,

tax laws, inflation) should be considered in analyses of retirement decisions. His

comprehensive and contextually grounded view highlighted some factors not

typically seen in psychological considerations of retirement decision-making.

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Counseling for Retirement 511

Feldman’s factors seem equally applicable to normative retirement decisions, and

his review of the literature concerning each one may be informative for coun-

selors working with adults who are grappling with the decision of when to retire.

Knowing what clients may be considering in their decisions is one part of effec-

tive intervention at this retirement phase, but knowing how they are processing

the information seems important as well. Richardson (1993) noted that such

decision-making often encompasses formal as well as informal planning pro-

cesses and is affected by issues of timing and the control the person has concern-

ing the decision to retire. Indeed, she outlined as one of her two primary goals of

retirement decision counseling aiding the client to feel in control of the process.

Her second goal was facilitating the client’s making the best decision possible.

Richardson’s focus on empowering clients as they grapple with the decision of

whether and when to retire seems consistent with her general model of retire-

ment counseling as wel l as social cognitive and self-management approaches to

conceptualizing retirement.

More specifically, Richardson (1993) suggested that the counselor be attentive

to client affect in retirement decision counseling because transition states such as

retirement may elicit strong feelings of confusion, anger, depression, or anxiety.

Listening and fully exploring these feelings were recommended. Subsequent to

these activities, Richardson recommended a more cognitive focus to aid the client

in arriving at a decision. This focus on cognition is maintained as the client moves

to implementing the decision. Although Richardson acknowledged the affective

components of the retirement decision-making process, she emphasized a ra-

tional approach. More recent thinking in the realm of career decision-making

may augment her perspective in that authors such as Phillips (1997) have sug-

gested considering alternative styles of adaptive decision-making. Phillips noted

that emotional or intuitive styles may be adaptive depending on the person and

situation. Counselors may need to assess, and be open to working from, the

decision-making perspective that works best for a particular client (see Miller &

Brown, Chapter 18, this volume).

ETIREMENT

DJUSTMENT

OUNSELING

The final phase of retirement delineated by Richardson (1993) is retirement ad-

justment. Predictors of adjustment following retirement have been heavily re-

searched and include health, finances, and social support (Taylor & Doverspike,

2003). Better health, adequate finances, and social supports that meet the per-

son’s needs all predict better postretirement adjustment. Sterns and Gray (1999),

however, observed that the retirement adjustment process is dynamic, and satis-

faction with retirement may wax and wane as a result of personal and environ-

mental changes. That variability suggests the importance of retiree flexibility to

adapt to change. Indeed, Trepanier, Lapierre, and Baillargeon (2001) found that in

their sample of recent retirees, retiree flexibility when confronted with impedi-

ments to personal goals best predicted psychological well-being (i.e., depression,

life satisfaction, self-esteem) in retirement.

Carter and Cook (1995) also highlighted the importance of adaptability for

retirement adjustment. They proposed a model in which the effects of social

and work roles on retirement adjustment are mediated by locus of control and

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self-e

ffi

cacy. As social and work roles change later in life, adjustment is affected as

well unless the individual is able to adapt to the changes. Carter and Cook’s model

is significant in that it places in a prominent position the personality variable of

locus of control and the social cognitive variable of self-efficacy for retirement. This

placement is consistent with emphases on self-efficacy, personal control, and per-

sonality found in other retirement literature (e.g., Kimmel et al., 1978; Richardson,

1993; Taylor & Doverspike, 2003). That Carter and Cook and others have suggested

that these variables have direct effects on retirement adjustment implies that they

warrant counselors’ attention in assessment and intervention.

Similarly, Reis and Gold (1993) proposed a model in which the retiree’s person-

ality and environmental context contribute to adjustment through interrelated

cognitions, emotions, and behaviors. These mediators (i.e., cognitions, emotions,

and behaviors) reflect the manner in which the person appraises and copes with

the stresses and strains of retirement. Using their model as a guide, Reis and Gold

recommended both careful assessment of personality and contextual influences

in retirement counseling as well as intervention at the level of the mediating fac-

tors (with an eye to how personality may contribute to these factors). Their model

seems a useful approach that capitalizes on constructs and processes that are con-

istent with two current and well-regarded psychological theories—the five fac-

tor model of personality (McCrae & Costa, 1990) and social cognitive theory

(Bandura, 1986).

Also addressing constructs consistent with a social cognitive approach, Payne,

Robbins, and Dougherty (1991) and Robbins, Lee, and Wan (1994) focused on how

goals and personal orientations toward goal setting related to the adjustment of

older adult retirees. Payne et al. reported that retirees who were able to set goals

and maintain their direction toward them were more optimistic, persistent, re-

sourceful, and connected to social support systems. Their data suggested greater

risk status for adjustment problems for retirees who were less able to set and

maintain a goal direction, and they recommended intervention to assist these re-

tirees with the retirement transition and to enhance their social supports. Rob-

bins et al. extended the work of Payne et al. by examining how social support,

health, and socioeconomic status (SES) contributed to retirement adjustment

along with the ability to set and act on goals. Specifically, they found that greater

support, better health, and higher SES contributed to retirees’ goal-setting abil-

ity, which, in turn, fostered better retirement adjustment. These studies’ findings

underscore the value of attending to goal setting in retirement counseling—a

focus that is also consistent with Richardson’s counseling model.

Few specific models for retirement adjustment counseling, however, exist in

the literature, perhaps because interventions most often take the form of the par-

ticular adjustment issue. Richardson (1993) enumerated the following as common

retirement adjustment issues: anxiety reactions, depressive reactions, marital/

relationship problems, occupational problems, health problems, economic prob-

lems, social deprivation, and identity problems. She also suggested assessment

and intervention approaches for each of them, with most recommendations de-

rived from treatment strategies that are used commonly with varied adult popu-

lations (e.g., cognitive or pharmacological treatment for depression).

Although retirement adjustment counseling interventions may look similar to

interventions for comparable problems with other populations, the underlying

origin of the concerns may differ. Awareness of the unique stresses of retirement

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Counseling for Retirement 513

may facilitate the counselor’s work with a retiree and enhance the counselor-

client relationship. For example, Tinsley and Schwendener-Holt (1992) high-

lighted how negative social stereotypes about retirement and later adulthood can

adversely affect retirees and contribute to depression and low self-esteem. They

suggested, too, that changes in roles and time spent with partners may contribute

to stress and, relatedly, retirees may need assistance structuring their time. Explo-

ration of part-time work, community service, and leisure activities are themes rel-

evant to retirement counseling that are raised by numerous authors (e.g., August

& Quintero, 2001; Entine, 1977; Schlossberg, 2004; Sinick, 1976; Sterns & Gray,

1999; Sterns & Kaplan, 2003; Taylor & Doverspike, 2003; Tinsley & Schwendener-

Holt, 1992).

Tinsley and Schwendener-Holt (1992) mentioned two additional challenges

faced by older adults and retirees: relationship losses and spiritual development.

Similarly, Richardson (1993) suggested that the loss of important others through

death, or loss of life direction and meaning through spiritual or existential confu-

sion, are important factors contributing to depression among retirees. Loss of in-

come and occupational status may contribute to depression and anxiety reactions

as well and be important areas for assessment and processing in counseling

(Richardson, 1993; Sinick, 1976; Tinsley & Bigler, 2002).

IVERSITY AND

ETIREMENT

OUNSELING

Any discussion of retirement and retirement counseling must address the issue of

individual differences in views, plans, and reactions to retirement and retire-

ment interventions. Richardson (1993) devoted multiple chapters of her classic

text to how gender and ethnicity are important to consider in retirement inter-

ventions. Similarly, Tinsley and Schwendener-Holt (1992) enumerated gender

and ethnic differences in how retirement is perceived and enacted. Both Tinsley

and Bigler (2002) and Taylor and Doverspike (2003) specifically addressed how

the retirement planning needs of women and members of diverse ethnic groups

may differ from those of Caucasian men.

Common themes found in the preceding sources include the need to attend

to women’s lesser incomes and greater caregiving responsibilities; the former

may contribute to women having inadequate financial resources, and the latter may

contribute t

o stress and strain. The lower incomes and lesser (or nonexistent)

pen

sions of members of many ethnic minority groups are mentioned often as in-

fluencing the decision to retire and contributing to stress and strain after retire-

ment. S

pecial health problems are associated with membership in some ethnic

groups and may contribute to poorer retirement adjustment as health consis-

tently predicts both the decision to retire and postretirement adjustment. Cul-

tural tradition concerning the role of the elderly person in the community is yet

another issue to consider in counseling.

Finally, Taylor and Doverspike (2003) contributed to the literature by delineat-

ing how generational influences may shape retirement attitudes, behaviors, and

reactions. They suggested that the better health of upcoming retirees may require

longer term planning to ensure adequate financial resources. They also recog-

nized that little information exists in the literature on the retirement needs and

issues of members of diverse groups and called for more intensive study of indi-

vidual differences in this important life transition. Despite the currently limited

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literature base, it seems clear that retirement interventions must be undertaken

with sensitivity to cultural and contextual influences.

A MODEL FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT OF

CAREER AND RETIREMENT

A model that brings together many of the themes in the theoretical and empirical

literature on older adulthood and retirement is that of Sterns and Kaplan (2003).

Their model focuses on four major areas of consideration in retirement: self,

work, family and friends, and community. This model for conceptualizing the

many influences on the older adult may be used in conjunction with Richardson’s

(1993) counseling approach to guide the practitioner in assisting the individual

who presents for retirement counseling. Careful exploration, assessment, and

evaluation of the four domains, and the influences contributing to each, may lead

to more informed and comprehensive interventions.

The first domain is that of the self, and Sterns and Kaplan (2003) emphasize

that a person’s self-concept is influenced by many factors relative to retirement

issues (see Figure 21.1). First, there is the understanding of our past selves and

what values, preferences, and desires are based in our past. Examples are return-

ing to our hometown in retirement after living in another community for many

years, maintaining close contact with old friends, or making use of a family sum-

mer home in retirement. This is countered and complemented by our future

selves, such as the possibility of new lifestyles, new living environments, new

friends, and new actions, or the decision to live in the same community but with

a new set of life activities outside work.

Three factors are important here. One is the understanding of change and an

awareness of the passage of time. How we view change in others and ourselves

over time and how we see and understand the implications of time in the future

are major aspects of personal cognitive integration leading to increased self-

understanding. The second factor influencing self-concept is the perceived con-

trol that we have of our lives at the personal level, in relation to significant others

Figure 21.1 Influences on Self.

Sense of time

and understanding

Perceived

control

Personal

insight

Current appraisals,

future obligations

Self-management

capability

Past

selves

Future

selves

Perceived

norms

Self

Organizational

based

self-esteem

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Counseling for Retirement 515

and in our work and career environments. We may feel in control based on finan-

cial resources, position held, or seniority, or we may feel extremely vulnerable

based on the current financial situation and business climate. In the past few

years, we have gone from the highest level of employment to a sense of great vul-

nerability, and many potential early retirees have had to come to terms with the

fact that they will have to work longer based on the decline of their investments.

In many cases, people in retirement have had to change lifestyle or return to

working for pay to maintain desired lifestyles.

The third factor is personal insight—how well we understand ourselves, our

motivations, our personal desires, our work approaches, and our relations to fam-

ily, friends, and organizations. Self-study, education, and counseling may aid this

process. Relatedly, organizational-based self-esteem (OBSE) is the bridge to the

world of work. How valued an individual feels, how an individual feels in rela-

tion to his or her fellow workers, and the feeling of contribution that the individ-

ual gets from his or her work are all part of OBSE. Another important area is how

an individual perceives the work and retirement norms in his or her environment.

An individual’s personal social clock, a set of internalized norms or timetable for

when life’s tasks are to be accomplished, and his or her understanding of social

norms will influence self-perceptions and actions to be taken (Neugarten & Neu-

garten, 1987; Papalia, Sterns, Feldman, & Camp, 2002).

The orchestration of all of these influences on self and the needed interpreta-

tion, planning, sophistication, and wisdom are all part of retirement self-

management capability. An important continuing area of research will focus on

people’s ability to self-manage their planning and execution of retirement deci-

sion making. Some persons may require more assistance and support to take ac-

tion effectively.

Figure 21.2 focuses on the demands of the work environment and how they in-

fluence the decision to continue to work full time or part time or to retire. Briefly,

individuals are concerned here with their self-evaluation of the employment situ-

ation. Part of this relates to their appraisal of the current situation, including how

they believe they are viewed by supervisors, the outcomes of performance ap-

praisals, perceived growth opportunities within the organization, and observa-

tions of treatment received by other later career employees. Part of this is an

understanding of personal strengths and weaknesses as well as self-knowledge of

their approach to meeting assignments and deadlines.

Employment-based appraisal refers to the formal and informal feedback that an

individual receives from supervisors—outcomes of performance appraisal, salary

increases, and involvement in organization planning and policy. Work opportuni-

ties refer to future plans within the work context and potential opportunities

over time. New work opportunities may be an important incentive to continue to

work as a bridge to retirement. Other bridge opportunities may provide a gradual

change in responsibilities to part-time employment. A major dimension is an in-

dividual’s activities in continuous learning and maintaining professional compe-

tence. Remaining competitive with up-to-date skills may make the individual

valuable to the organization.

Relationships to coworkers may be extremely important in continued employ-

ment. How people feel about their work situation is highly influenced by coworker

interactions in many cases. Middle-age and older workers value relationships

the job. A negative relationship with coworkers may lead a valuable older worker

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