Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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Table 3.1 (Continued)

5. Each occupation requires a different pattern of vocational characteristics, with toler-

ances wide enough to allow some variety of individuals in each occupation.

6. People are qualified for a variety of occupations because of their vocational charac-

teristics and occupational requirements.

7. Occupational success depends on the extent to which individuals find in their work

roles adequate outlets for their prominent vocational characteristics.

The degree of satisfaction people attain from work is proportional to the degree to

which they are able to implement their vocational self-concepts. Job satisfaction de-

pends on establishment in a type of occupation, a work situation, and a way of life in

which people can play the types of roles that growth and exploratory experiences have

led them to consider congenial and appropriate.

The process of career construction is essentially that of developing and implementing

vocational self-concepts in work roles. Self-concepts develop through the interaction

of inherited aptitudes, physical make-up, opportunities to observe and play various

roles, and evaluations of the extent to which the results of role playing meet with the

approval of peers and supervisors. Implementation of vocational self-concepts in work

roles involves a synthesis and compromise between individual and social factors. It

evolves from role playing and learning from feedback, whether the role is played in

fantasy, in the counseling interview, or in real-life activities such as hobbies, classes,

clubs, part-time work, and entry jobs.

10. Although vocational self-concepts become increasingly stable from late adolescence

forward, providing some continuity in choice and adjustment, self-concepts and vo-

cational preferences do change with time and experience as the situations in which

people live and work change.

11. The process of vocational change may be characterized by a maxicycle of career

stages characterized as progressing through periods of growth, exploration, estab-

lishment, management, and disengagement. The five stages are subdivided into pe-

riods marked by vocational development tasks that individuals experience as social

expectations.

12.

A minicycle of growth, exploration, establishment, management, and disengagement

occurs during transitions from one career stage to the next as well as each time an in-

dividual’s career is destabilized by socioeconomic and personal events such as illness

and injury, plant closings and company layoffs, and job redesign and automation.

13. Vocational maturity is a psychological construct that denotes an individual’s degree

of vocational development along the continuum of career stages from growth through

disengagement. From a societal perspective, an individual’s vocational maturity can

be operationally defined by comparing the developmental tasks being encountered to

those expected based on chronological age.

14. Career adaptability is a psychosocial construct that denotes an individual’s readi-

ness and resources for coping with current and anticipated tasks of vocational devel-

opment. The adaptive fitness of attitudes, beliefs, and competencies—the ABCs of

career construction—increases along the developmental lines of concern, control,

conception, and confidence.

15. Career construction is prompted by vocational development tasks, occupational tran-

sitions, and personal traumas and then produced by responses to these life changes.

16. Career construction, at any given stage, can be fostered by conversations that ex-

plain vocational development tasks and occupational transitions, exercises that

strengthen adaptive fitness, and activities that clarify and validate vocational self-

concepts.

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The Theory and Practice of Career Construction 47

In the remaining sections of this chapter, I discuss, in turn, the three major com-

ponents of career construction theory. First, I briefly discuss how the theory views

vocational personality types and the content of their occupations. Then I address

the process of psychosocial adaptation by describing vocational development tasks

and outlining the coping responses that individuals use to construct their ca-

reers. Next, I discuss how an individual’s enduring preoccupations and prob-

lems, as expressed in integrative and self-sustaining narratives, guide adaptation

by negotiating cultural opportunities and constraints. Having described the three

major components of the theory, I then present a case study that illustrates the

theory’s usefulness in helping one client construct her career. With this overview,

I turn to the first component of career construction theory, the one focused on the

psychology of individual differences.

VOCATIONAL PERSONALITY

Individuals form personalities in their families of origin and develop these per-

sonalities in the neighborhood and school as they progress through the growth

stage of their careers. Vo cational personality is defined as an individual’s career-

related abilities, needs, values, and interests. Before these characteristics are ex-

pressed in occupations, they are rehearsed in activities such as household chores,

games, hobbies, reading, and studying. The range of personality dispositions, par-

ticularly as they relate to work roles, is well described by Holland’s (1997) taxon-

omy. His RIASEC prototypes provide a readily comprehensible and broad-band

tool for organizing vocational phenomena into type categories. The types or trait

complexes, although decontextualized and abstract, provide extremely useful

comparative dimensions for conducting vocational appraisals of individuals and

environments. RIASEC types can be used to summarize an individual’s disposi-

tional signature, including skills, interests, values, and abilities for enacting

work roles. After determining an individual’s degree of resemblance to each of

the RIASEC types, the resulting three-letter code characterizes that individual’s

personality organization and work-relevant traits.

Career construction theory appreciates Holland’s (1997) explanation that his in-

ventories indicate degree of resemblance to protoytpes. In career construction the-

ory, these interest types are simply resemblances to socially constructed clusters

of attitudes and skills; they have no reality or truth value outside themselves. The

RIASEC hexagon reflects regulated similarities in environments that produce per-

sonality patterns of six types among individuals with heterogeneous potentials.

Thus, career construction theory views interests as a relational phenomenon that

reflects emergent and socially constituted meanings and leads to a person’s repu-

tation among a group of people (J. Hogan & Holland, 2003). Moreover, interests are

viewed as dynamic processes, not as stable traits. Therefore, counselors should not

privilege interests above other constructs as predictors of occupational congru-

ence and job success. The idea of shared interest is just one among many important

indicators to consider when individuals choose occupations and build their ca-

reers. Counselors who use career construction theory occasionally do administer

interest inventories; however, they do not interpret the resulting scores as portals

on a client’s “real” interests. Instead, they use the results to generate hypotheses

that are viewed as possibilities, not predictions.

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Holland’s typology offers a practical structure for identifying the content of a

vocational personality, that is, the personological and vocational results of an indi-

vidual’s efforts at self-organization of his or her skills, interests, values, and abili-

ties for dealing with life roles. Another valuable aspect of Holland’s theory is that,

because vocational personality types congregate to form work environments, the

same RIASEC types have been used to characterize the social organization of occu-

pations. Accordingly, Holland’s hexagonal arrangement of RIASEC types is used

by counselors to teach clients about not only how they organize their inter

ests but

also how society has organized macroenvironments such as occupations, college

majors, and leisure activities. Thus, Holland’s theory serves clients by providing a

concise vocabulary for describing both who they are and what they are looking

for, as well as by teaching them a simplifying taxonomy with which to organize

and store information about the work world. Accepting the preeminence of Hol-

land’s typology enables career construction theory to concentrate on bridges be-

tween personality and work, especially how individuals build and cross their own

bridges. Thus, career construction theory concentrates on self-extension, not on

the self-organization reflected in vocational personality types nor on the social or-

ganization of occupations.

CAREER ADAPTABILITY

An occupation provides a mechanism of social integration, one that offers indi-

viduals a strategy for participating in and sustaining themselves in society. Ca-

reers are constructed when individuals extend themselves into these

occupational roles. While vocational personality types emphasize the occupa-

tional content of career, adaptability emphasizes the coping processes through

which individuals connect to their communities and construct their careers.

Succinctly stated, career adaptability deals with how an individual constructs a

career whereas vocational personality deals with what career they construct. To

elicit career content, the counselor might ask a client, “What occupation inter-

ests you the most?” To elicit career process, the counselor might ask that client,

“How did you decide on that occupation?” In short, when looking at careers,

the content perspective focuses on making wise choices, whereas the process per-

spective focuses on making choices wisely (Katz, 1969).

In examining the content of careers using the RIASEC model, we looked from

two perspectives—the self-organization of individuals and the social organization

of occupations. In considering adaptation, we again take the twin perspectives of

self and society. From the social vantage point on adaptation, counselors look at

the community expectations being encountered by a client. From the individual

vantage point on adaptation, counselors look at how the client responds to these

expectations. The next two sections address, first, the major vocational develop-

ment tasks involved in constructing a career and, second, the adaptive responses

that complete these tasks.

EVELOPMENTAL

ASKS

Society invites adolescents to extend their personalities into the world and join the

workforce. The goal of the school-to-work transition is that emerging adults learn

to contribute to society by fitting their personalities into suitable work roles. The

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The Theory and Practice of Career Construction 49

social expectation that adolescents seek occupations congruent with their abilities

and interests is communicated to them in the form of vocational development

tasks. The continuum of developmental tasks, which spans the life cycle, has been

divided into five career stages, with each stage named for its principal activity:

growth, exploration, establishment, management, and disengagement. Each career

stage contains its own set of developmental tasks. While the career stages empha-

size change, the vocational development tasks within them detail how stability is

reestablished and continuity maintained.

The first career stage centers on the origin and growth of the individual’s voca-

tional personality. The growth stage is followed during adolescence and emerging

adulthood with exploratory activities that enable the individual to make fitting ed-

ucational and vocational choices based on self-knowledge and a fund of occupa-

tional information. In due course, the tentative choices and trial positions of the

exploration stage clarify the situation so that the young adult is ready to stabilize in

a certain occupation and maybe a particular job with one employer. Having estab-

lished a secure job, and perhaps advancing in it, an adult then enters a period

where further advancement is unlikely. At this point, the individual manages to

hold on to the position by keeping up with new developments and innovating work

routines. At some point, the individual becomes ready to leave the job and begins

to decelerate activity in it while turning over responsibilities to other workers.

During this period of disengagement, the person may grow and explore new inter-

ests in other positions and occupations or, if it is later in the life cycle, prepare for

retirement. Practitioners and researchers use the activities of growth, exploration,

establishment, management, and disengagement to characterize the maxicycle of

stages in a career.

The career stages, with their developmental tasks, function as a habitus in

supplying workers with meanings they can use to interpret their work lives.

Habitus means the interpenetration between objective divisions of the social

world and an individual’s subjective vision of them, causing a correspondence

and interplay between an individual’s mental structures and a community’s so-

cial structures (Guichard & Cassar, 1998). Individuals mentally structure the

story of their own work life using the social structure provided by society’s

grand narrative of a career. The narrative frames people’s stories of work and its

consequences as they think about and take stock of their work lives. Thus, habi-

tus makes an individual’s story of personal experience and private meaning

comprehensible to others by embedding and systematically organizing it accord-

ing to a dominant social structure. In addition to providing a commonsense

framework, the grand story of career synchronizes individuals to their culture

by telling them in advance how their work lives should proceed and prompting

them to stay on schedule. Given these scripts, individuals bring to life the grand

narrative, or some parts of it, by enacting their unique version of it in a particular

historical era, given location, and specific opportunity structure that discrimi-

nates by race, age, sex, religion, and class.

The story of the career stages tells a grand narrative about psychosocial devel-

opment and cultural adaptation. Essentially, the metanarrative of career can be

characterized as a progress story. Success in adapting to each developmental task

results in more effective functioning as a student, worker, or retiree and lays the

groundwork for progressively mastering the next task along the developmental

continuum. The key metaphor in this portrayal of the American Dream is climb

ing

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a ladder. Incremental progress up the occupational ladder is indexed by increas-

ing wages, benefits, and security. Progress stories do give hope and security to

many people; nevertheless, there are many other people whose experience does

not fit the story. Instead of progress, some people encounter barriers that force

them to regress, drift, flounder, stagnate, or stop. Unable to move ahead on a ca-

reer path, they drop back, get sidetracked, become stuck in a rut, run into a dead

end, or fall by the wayside.

The grand narrative of career tells a story, an account that people use to under-

stand themselves and others. It is not the account, it is an account of vocational

velopment tasks for one culture in one historical era. It was constructed in the

1950s to depict the then-current corporate culture and societal expectations for a

life, especially a male life that privileges the work role over family and friendship

roles. Other accounts are being narrated today as the global economy, information

technology, a nd social justice challenge dominant narratives and rewrite the social

organization of work and the meaning of career. These rich narratives chronicle

untold stories and voice complexity. These new stories, rather than focusing on

progress through an orderly sequence of predictable tasks in a maxicycle, will in-

creasingly focus on minicycles by emphasizing adaptability for transitions, espe-

cially coping with changes that are unexpected and traumatic. The new job market

in our unsettled economy calls for viewing career not as a lifetime commitment to

one or two employers but as selling services and skills to a series of employers

who need projects completed (Kalleberg, Reynolds, & Marsden, 2003). In negotiat-

ing each new project, the prospective employee usually concentrates on salary yet

also seeks control of the working environment, work-family balance, and training

for the next job.

While the grand narrative changes from stability to mobility to reflect the

labor needs of postindustrial society, the activities that characterize the five

principal career stages—growth, exploration, establishment, management, and

disengagement—are still useful and can be viewed as activities that compose a

minicycle around each of the many transitions from school to work, from job to

job, and from occupation to occupation. As each transition approaches, individ-

uals can adapt more effectively if they meet the challenges with growing inter-

est, focused exploration and informed decision making, trial behaviors followed

by a commitment projected forward for a certain time period, active role man-

agement, and forward-looking deceleration and disengagement. For example, a

high school graduate entering her first job usually progresses through a period

of growth in the new role, including exploration of the nature and expectations

of that role. She becomes established in it, manages the role for a long period,

and then experiences disengagement if with further growth she becomes ready

to change jobs or even switch occupational fields. Similarly, the established

worker, frustrated or advancing, may experience growth and explore new roles

and then seek to get established in one of them. In postindustrial economies,

people may not work at one job for 30 years. New technologies, globalization,

and job redesign require workers to more actively construct their careers. They

can expect to change jobs relatively often and make frequent transitions, each

time recycling through minicycles of growth, exploration, stabilization, man-

agement, and disengagement as they move within or across the career stages of

the maxicycle.

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The Theory and Practice of Career Construction 51

IMENSIONS OF

AREER

DAPTABILITY

The attributes that individuals need to successfully engage the tasks inherent in

minicycle transitions and maxicycle stages constitute career adaptability. Adapt-

ability involves adjusting to vocational development tasks, occupational transi-

tions, and personal traumas by solving problems that are usually unfamiliar, often

ill-defined, and always complex. Career construction theory conceptualizes devel-

opment as driven by adaptation to an environment rather than by maturation of

inner structures. Accordingly, career adaptability differs from Super’s (1955) ear-

lier conception of vocational maturity, which refers to an individual’s degree of

vocational development relative to an individual’s peers. Super’s view of develop-

ment assumed that individuals move in an orderly and normative sequence to-

ward a desirable end state of maturity and, in the process, they become more

complete as they unfold and elaborate their latent potentials. An individual’s vo-

cational maturity can be operationally defined by comparing the developmental

tasks being encountered to those society expects an individual to be encountering

at a particular stage of life. This view was more useful when society provided sta-

ble and orderly environments that fostered some uniformity in development.

However, today’s turbulent society is unable to prompt orderly development, thus

forcing individuals to respond to a wide range of external influences that can

push development in various directions (Collin, 1997).

The change from an industrial society emphasizing a factory system to a

knowledge-based society emphasizing information technology occasioned the

formulation of a new career construct—adaptability. Career adaptability is a psy-

chosocial construct that denotes an individual’s readiness and resources for coping with

current and imminent vocational development tasks, occupational transitions, and per-

sonal traumas. Adaptability shapes self-extension into the social environment as

individuals connect with society and regulate their own vocational behavior rel-

ative to the developmental tasks imposed by a community and the transitions en-

countered in occupational roles. Functioning as self-regulation strategies, career

adaptability enables individuals to effectively implement their self-concepts in

occupational roles, thus creating their work lives and building their careers.

The actual strategies involved in career adaptation are conditioned by histori-

cal era, dependent on local situations, and variable across social roles. Therefore,

researchers can describe adaptive resources and strategies best when they select a

particular developmental task or occupational transition and then locate it in a

specific social ecology. Nevertheless, for the purposes of career construction the-

ory, I have defined global dimensions of career adaptability and organized them

into a structural model with three levels. At the highest and most abstract level,

picture four dimensions of career adaptability, each named according to its func-

tion: concern, control, curiosity, and confidence. These four dimensions represent

general adaptive resources and strategies that individuals use to manage critical

tasks, transitions, and traumas as they construct their careers.

At the intermediate level, the model articulates a distinct set of functionally

homogenous variables for each of the four general dimensions. Each set of inter-

mediate variables includes the specific attitudes, beliefs, and competencies—the

ABCs of career construction—which shape the concrete coping behaviors used

to master developmental tasks, negotiate occupational transitions, and resolve

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per

sonal traumas. The ABCs are viewed as mechanisms for synthesizing voca-

tional self-concepts with work roles. Attitudes are affective variables or feelings

that fuel behavior, whereas beliefs are conative variables or inclinations that direct

behav

ior. The attitudes and beliefs dispose individuals to act in certain ways; thus,

they form dispositional response tendencies. Although conceptually distinct, it

can be difficult to distinguish an attitude from a belief, so treating them both as

dispositions, meaning a state of mind or feeling toward something, has practical

advantages in devising interview questions and psychometric inventories. The cog-

nitive competencies, which include comprehension and problem-solving abilities,

denote the resources brought to bear on making and implementing career choices.

The development and use of competencies are shaped by the dispositions. The cog-

tive competencies, in turn, modulate vocational behavior, which is portrayed at

the third and most concrete level in the structural model of career adaptability. Vo-

cational behavior denotes the numerous coping responses that produce vocational

development and construct careers.

Having outlined the structural model of career adaptability, I turn to a detailed

explanation of the four dimensions of response readiness and coping resources.

In career construction theory, adaptive individuals are conceptualized as:

1. Becoming concerned about their future as a worker.

2. Increasing personal control over their vocational future.

3. Displaying curiosity by exploring possible selves and future scenarios.

4. Strengthening the confidence to pursue their aspirations.

Career adaptability thus increases along the four dimensions of concern, con-

trol, curiosity, and confidence. Each is discussed in turn, with Table 3.2 serving

as an overview that summarizes the discussion and allows comparison of the

dimensions. The first column in Table 3.2 indicates the career questions that so-

ciety prompts individuals to ask themselves. The second column lists the career

problems arising from negative responses to the questions. The third column

lists the adaptability dimension associated with positive responses to the ques-

tions. The next columns list the dispositions, competencies, coping behaviors,

and relationship orientations that compose each dimension. The final column

lists the primary type of career intervention that addresses each career problem

and attempts to turn it into an adaptive strength. The first row in Table 3.2 deals

with career concern.

Career Concern An individual’s concern about his or her own vocational future

is the first and most important dimension of career adaptability. The fundamen-

tal function of career concern in constructing careers is reflected by the prime

place given to it by prominent theories of vocational development, denoted by

names such as Ginzberg’s time perspective, Super’s planfulness, Tiedeman’s antici-

pation, Crites’ orientation, and Harren’s awareness (Savickas, Silling, & Schwartz,

1984). Career concern means essentially a future orientation, a sense that it is im-

portant to prepare for tomorrow. Attitudes of planfulness and optimism foster a

sense of concern because they dispose individuals to become aware of the voca-

tional tasks and occupational transitions to be faced and choices to be made in the

imminent and distant future. Career concern makes the future feel real as it helps

an individual remember the vocational past, consider the vocational present, and

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Table 3.2

Career Adaptability Dimensions

Career Question Career Problem

Adaptability

Dimension

Attitudes

nd Beliefs Competence

Coping

Behaviors

lationship

Perspective

Career

Intervention

Do I have a future?

Indifference Concern Planful Planni

ng Aware

Involved

Preparatory

Dependent Orientation

exercises

Who owns my

future?

Indecision Control Decisive

Decision making

Assertive

Disciplined

Willful

Independent Decisional

training

What do I want to

do with my future?

Unrealism Curiosity Inquisitive Explor

ing Experimenting

Risk-taking

Inquiring

Interdependent Information-

seeking

activities

Can I do it? Inhibition Confidence Ef

ficacious

Problem solving

Persistent

Striving

Industrious

Equal

Self-esteem

building

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anticipate the vocational future. Thinking about his or her work life across time is

the essence of career because a subjective career is not a behavior; it is an idea—a

reflection on the self. Career construction is fostered by first realizing that his or

her present vocational situation evolved from past experiences and then connect-

ing these experiences through the present situation to a preferred future. A belief

in the continuity of experience allows individuals to connect their present activi-

ties to their occupational aspirations and visions of possible selves. This sense of

continuity allows individuals to envision how today’s effort builds tomorrow’s

success. Planful attitudes and belief in continuity incline individuals to engage in

activities and experiences that promote competencies in planning, which include

skill at sequencing their activities along a time line that spans from the present

situation to a desired future.

A lack of career concern is called career indifference, and it reflects planlessness

and pessimism about the future. This apathy can be addressed by career inter-

ventions designed to foster a forward-looking orientation and awareness of the

vocational development tasks and occupational transitions on the horizon. Career

counseling interventions, in general, help people formulate occupational day-

dreams in which they begin to design their lives. Career indifference is addressed,

in particular, by interventions such as the Real Game (Jarvis & Richardt, 2001), the

Life Skills Program (Adkins, 1970), time perspective workshops (Whan & Savickas,

1998), and writing future autobiographies (Maw, 1982). These interventions induce

a future orientation, foster optimism, make the future feel real, reinforce positive

attitudes toward planning, link present activities to future outcomes, practice plan-

ning skills, and heighten career awareness. These coping attitudes, beliefs, and

competencies strengthen career concern and prompt thoughts about who controls

the individual’s career.

Career Control Control over an individual’s own vocational future is the second

most important dimension in career adaptability. The fundamental function of

control in constructing careers is reflected by the vast amount of research on

topics such as decision making, assertiveness, locus of control, autonomy, self-

determination, effort attributions, and agency (Blustein & Flum, 1999), as well as

the widespread advice to younger workers in a knowledge-based society and mo-

bile labor market that they act as “free agents,” “independent contractors,” and

“me incorporated.” Career control means that individuals feel and believe that they

are responsible for constructing their careers. While they may consult significant

others, they own their career. The dominant culture in the United States and those

who have assimilated it lean toward independence in balancing self and society.

Consequently, the most popular models and materials for career intervention

assume that the individual is autonomous in making career choices. Attitudes of

assertiveness and decisiveness dispose self-governing individuals to engage the vo-

cational development tasks and negotiate occupational transitions, rather than pro-

crastinate and avoid them. The belief that they own their own future and should

construct it by choosing rather than chancing leads individuals to sense that they

are responsible for their lives, whether they view themselves from a collectivist

perspective or an individualist perspective. Although the range of options in a col-

lectivist context may be narrower, the alternatives still must be explored to avoid

losing the “I” in the “they.” Individuals who encounter a narrower range of options

exercise career control by exploring the limited number of possibilities to make

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The Theory and Practice of Career Construction 55

them personally meaningful and by fine-tuning conferred choices to enact them

uniquely. Whether individuals take an individualistic or a collectivistic stance,

they can benefit from being intentional about what they do and responsible for how

they do it. Moreover, counselors must know that the two stances, which seem so

different at first look, both enable individuals to strengthen themselves as they

strengthen others. Assertive attitudes and belief in personal responsibility incline

individuals to engage in activities and experiences that promote decisiveness and

competence in decision making.

A lack of career control is often called career indecision. The inability to choose

can be addressed by career interventions designed to foster decisive attitudes and

decisional competencies. Career counseling interventions, in general, help people

enhance the ability to decide by clarifying their choices and what is at stake. Ca

reer

indecision is addressed, in particular, by interventions such as assertiveness

training, decisional training, and attribution retraining that build decisional

skills, foster responsibility, attribute success to effort, teach time management

techniques, and practice self-management strategies. These coping attitudes, be-

liefs, and competencies strengthen career control and prompt curiosity about pos-

sible selves and alternative futures.

Career Curiosity With a sense of control comes the initiative for learning about the

types of work that the individual might want to do and the occupational opportu-

nities to do it. The fundamental function of curiosity in constructing careers is re-

flected by the extensive coverage given to it by prominent theories of vocational

development under the rubrics of exploration and information-seeking behavior

as well as in their direct products—self-knowledge and occupational information.

Career curiosity refers to inquisitiveness about and exploration of the fit between

self and the work world. When acted on, curiosity produces a fund of knowledge

with which to make choices that fit self to situation. Systematic exploration and

reflection on random exploratory experiences move individuals from naive to

knowledgeable as they learn how the world works. Attitudes of inquisitiveness

dispose individuals to scan the environment to learn more about self and situa-

tions. Belief in the value of being open to new experiences and experimenting

with possible selves and various roles prompts individuals to try new things and

have adventures. Attitudes and dispositions that favor exploration and openness

lead to experiences that increase competence in both self-knowledge and occupa-

tional information. Individuals who have explored the world beyond their own

neighborhoods have more knowledge about their abilities, interests, and values as

well as about the requirements, routines, and rewards of various occupations. This

broader fund of information brings realism and objectivity to subsequent choices

that will match self to situations.

A lack of career curiosity can lead to naiveté about the work world and inac-

curate images of the self. This unrealism can be addressed by career inter-

ventions designed to provide information. Career counseling interventions

in general—especially those involving test interpretation and occupational

information—help people learn about themselves and the work world. Career

unrealism is addressed, in particular, by interventions such as clarifying values,

discussing extrinsic versus intrinsic rewards, engaging in job simulations,

shadowing workers, practicing goal setting, learning how to explore, reading

cupational pamphlets, working part-time jobs, and volunteering at community

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