Bulmer-Thomas V., Coatsworth J., Cortes-Conde R. The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America: Volume 2, The Long Twentieth Century
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692 Bibliographical Essays
nonetheless important position in financing Argentine railways, which is studied
by Andr
´
es Mart
´
ın Regalsky in “Las inversiones francesas en los ferrocarriles argenti-
nos, 1887–1900,” Siglo XIX 3:5 (January–June 1988): 125–66; and “Foreign Capital,
Local Interests, and Railway Development in Argentina: French Investments in
Railways, 1900–1914,” Journal of Latin American Studies 21:3 (October 1989): 425–
52.Mario Justo L
´
opez’s impressive trilogy examines domestic and foreign-owned
railways alike: Historia de los ferrocarriles de la provincia de Buenos aires, 1857–1886
(Buenos Aires, 1991); Historia de los ferrocarriles nacionales: incluyendo los de Santa
F
´
e, Entre R
´
ıos y C
´
ordoba, 1866–1886 (Buenos Aires, 1994); and Ferrocarriles, deuda y
crisis: historia de los ferrocarriles en la Argentina, 1887–1896 (Buenos Aires, 2000). An
interesting debate erupted over how to characterize the economic consequences of
early Argentine railway development, which can be found in Paul B. Goodwin,
“The Central Argentine Railway and the Economic Development of Argentina,
1854–1881,” Hispanic American Historical Review 57:4 (November 1977): 613–32; and
Sylvester Damus, “Critique of Paul B. Goodwin’s ‘The Central Argentine Railway
and the Economic Development of Argentina, 1854–1881,’” Hispanic American His-
torical Review 58:3 (August 1978): 468–73. Cliometric assessments of several aspects
of the Argentine railway experience are found in Sylvester Damus, “An Evalu-
ation of Ramsey Pricing: Argentine Railways ca. 1905,” Transportation Research
Forum. Proceedings 24:1 (1983): 418–28; and in William Summerhill, “Economic
Consequences of Argentine Railroad Development” (mimeograph, 2001).
The historiography on Brazilian railways has grown as well, and only the broad
outlines of the last thirty or so years are sketched here. For several decades, some of
the best historical research in Brazilian universities took the form of master’s degree
theses. Fortunately, a number of these on railroads made it into print, and two of
them address the opposing ends of the spectrum of ownership. The first decade
of what would become Brazil’s largest railway is recounted admirably in Almir
Chaiban El-Kareh, Filha branca de m
˜
ae preta: a Companhia da Estrada de Ferro D.
Pedro II (1855–1865) (Petr
´
opolis, 1982). The definitive economic history of the major
domestically owned joint-stock railways in S
˜
ao Paulo is the pioneering study by
Fl
´
avio Azevedo Marques de Saes, As ferrovias de S
˜
ao Paulo, 1870–1940 (S
˜
ao Paulo,
1981). The largest of those companies is also thoroughly examined through the end
of the nineteenth century by Robert H. Mattoon, “The Companhia Paulista de
Estradas de Ferro, 1868–1900:ALocal Railway Enterprise in S
˜
ao Paulo, Brazil,”
(Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1972). Colin M. Lewis impressively turned
his sights from Argentina to Brazil, with an emphasis on policy-making: Public
Policy and Private Initiative Railway Building in S
˜
ao Paulo 1860–1889 (London,
1991). Steven Topik moved beyond Duncan’s classic study to analyze the increasing
role of government in railway ownership in The Political Economy of the Brazilian
State, 1889–1930 (Austin, TX, 1987). More recently, the economic impact of rail-
way development is taken up in William R. Summerhill, Order Against Progress:
Government, Foreign Investment, and Railroads in Brazil, 1854–1913 (Stanford, CA,
2003). Research on the experience of specific lines and various regions is ongoing
in Brazilian graduate programs, so there is sure to be a continued stream of new
findings on the topic.
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Work on Mexican railways steams ahead at full speed and on both sides of
the border. Studies of the railway’s economic impact and railway policy have been
most evident in recent decades. John H. Coatsworth, Growth Against Development:
The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb, IL, 1981) led the
way with the first cliometric foray into the question of the railway’s consequences
in a Latin American setting. Arthur Schmidt dealt with the same era but with a
tighter focus on specific regional questions in The Social and Economic Effect of
the Railroad in Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico, 1867–1911 (New York, 1987). Arturo
Grunstein took up the major political and regulatory questions in “Railroads
and Sovereignty: Policymaking in Porfirian Mexico” (Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA,
1994). The economic impact of Mexico’s major trunk line has been reexamined and
significantly revised, with a much greater focus on its consequences for the internal
market than had been previously understood, by Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa
extranjera y mercado interno el ferrocarril central mexicano, 1880–1907 (Mexico City,
1995). Complementing that study are the chapters viewing Mexican railways in a
century-long perspective in the edited volume by Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo
Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida econ
´
omica en M
´
exico, 1850–1950, del surgimiento
tard
´
ıo al decaimiento precoz (Mexico City, 1996).
The surface of the corpus of studies for the rest of Latin America can barely
be scratched here. Several works on Chilean railways stand out as especially wor-
thy of attention, including what is, in effect, a company biography by Harold
Blakemore, From the Pacific to La Paz the Antofagasta (Chile) and Bolivia Railway
Company 1888–1988 (London, 1990); and the broader assessment of early effects by
Robert Oppenheimer, “Chilean Transportation Development: The Railroad and
Socio-Economic Change in the Central Valley, 1840–1885,” (Ph.D. dissertation,
UCLA, 1976). The important connection between railways and mining gets some
attention, as do port conditions, in Joanne Fox Przeworski, The Decline of the
Copper Industry in Chile and the Entrance of North American Capital, 1870–1916
(New York, 1980). Some of the linkages between railways and the activities that
provisioned them are provided, in a comparative setting, by Guillermo Guajardo
Soto, “Nuevos datos para un viejo debate: los v
´
ınculos entre ferrocarriles e indus-
trializaci
´
on en Chile y M
´
exico, 1860–1950,” El Trimestre Econ
´
omico 65:258 (April–
June 1998): 213–61. Colombian railways are addressed in the insightful study by
Hernan Horna, Transport Modernization and Entrepreneurship in Nineteenth Cen-
tury Colombia: Cisneros and Friends (Stockholm, 1992); in a more cliometric vein by
William Paul McGreevey, An Economic History of Colombia 1845–1930 (Cambridge,
1971), which remains one of the most ambitious and interesting studies of Latin
American economic history yetwritten; andmore recently in MariaTeresa Ramirez,
“Los ferrocarriles y su impacto sobre la econom
´
ıa colombiana,” Revista de Historia
Econ
´
omica 19:1 (2001): 81–119.Peru’s experience with railways was likely much less
developmental than found elsewhere. Examining various features of it are Heraclio
Bonilla, “El impacto de los ferrocarriles: algunas proposiciones,” Historia y Cultura
6 (1972): 93–120;Guido A. Pennano, “Desarrollo regional y ferrocarriles en el Per
´
u,
1850–1879,” Apuntes 5:9 (1979): 131–50; and Rory Miller “Railways and Economic
Development in Central Peru,” in Rory Miller et al., Social and Economic Change
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in Modern Peru (Liverpool, 1976), 27–52.Many studies of Cuba address its railway
sector, but there is no substitute for Oscar Zanetti Lecuona and Alejandro Garcia
Alvarez, Caminos para el azucar (Habana, 1987), which is now available in English
as Sugar and Railroads: A Cuban History, 1837–1959 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1998).
Once one moves beyond railways, the modern economic history literature on
transport improvements grows considerably thinner, which suggests that there is
a large amount of knowledge still waiting to be gleaned from research on these
other forms of infrastructure. Studies of streetcars and early utilities exist, but
not many. A clear standout is Durcan McDowell’s The Light: Brazilian Traction,
Light, and Power Company Limited, 1899–1945 (Toronto, 1988). Ports and shipping
have garnered somewhat more attention and were certainly more important to
the growth of Latin American economies. For a key Colombian port, see Eduardo
Posada-Carb
´
o, “El puerto de Barranquilla: entre el auge exportador y el aislamiento,
1850–1950,” Caravelle 69 (1997): 119–32.Animportant and comprehensive refer-
ence on Brazilian ports for this period is the government publication, Portos do
Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1926). A social history of the modernization of port facil-
ities in Brazil that offers considerable insight for economic historians is Sergio
Lamar
˜
ao, Dostrapiches ao porto: um estudo sobre a
´
area portu
´
aria do Rio de Janeiro
(Rio de Janeiro, 1991). Inland navigation is studied in pioneering work on the
early commercial activities in the Plate River, The Growth of the Shipping Industry
in the Rio de la Plata Region, 1794–1860 (Madison, WI, 1957). One personalistic
account that proves valuable in the absence of more scholarly work is Luis Dodero,
La navegaci
´
on en la cuenca del plata y sus propulsores, memorias personales origen e
historia de la m
´
as grande compa
˜
n
´
ıa de navegaci
´
on fluvial y mar
´
ıtima privada (Buenos
Aires, 1961). An impressive study of public and private port improvements is pro-
vided by Silvia B. L
´
azzaro, Estado, capital extranjero y sistema portuario argentino,
1880–1914 (Buenos Aires, 1992). Also valuable to historians is Edgardo J. Rocca,
El puerto de Buenos Aires en la historia (Buenos Aires, 1996), and his Cronolog
´
ıa
hist
´
orica del puerto de la ciudad de Buenos Aires siglos XV–XX (Buenos Aires,
2000).
Finally, the early motor roads deserve far more attention than they have received,
given that they were both complements and substitutes for railways. Most economic
studies of roads focus on the period of the 1940s and later. A tremendously insightful
treatment of the early period, which deserves emulation for other countries, is
Richard Downes’ study of early motor roads and automobiles in Brazil: “Autos over
Rails: How U.S. Business Supplanted the British in Brazil, 1910–1928,” Journal of
Latin American Studies 24:3 (October 1992), 551–83.
CHAPTER 9 (OTTO T. SOLBRIG)
The economic history of the environment in Latin America was not a topic of inter-
est until recently. Most of the literature, aside from the treatises on the biology
and ecology of plants and animals, is very recent. There is only one comprehensive
study documenting the changes that have occurred in the environment in Latin
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America since European occupation that comes close to being an economic his-
tory of land use and the environment. This is the electronic book by Guillermo
Sarmiento, La transformaci
´
on de los ecosistemas de la am
´
erica latina (Buenos Aires,
2000). However, for partial accounts, see Alan Baker, ed., Progress in Historical
Geography (1972), and J. D. Henshall and R. P. Momsen, AGeography of Brazilian
Development (London, 1976). Of general interest is also the comprehensive review
by W. B. Meyer and B. L. Turner, “Human Population Growth and Global Land-
Use/Cover Change,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23 (1992): 39–57.
Finally, a delightful book is G. G. Whitney, From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited
Plain. A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America: 1500 to the
Present (Cambridge, 1994).
A number of books and articles deal with aspects of the physical environment
in Latin America. For example, see Jorge Morello, Perfil ecol
´
ogico de sud
´
america
(Madrid, 1984); J. Aubouin et al., “Esquisse pal
´
eo-g
´
eographique et structurale des
Andes m
´
eridionales,” Revue de G
´
eographie Physique et G
´
eologie Dynamique 15 (1973):
11–72; and H. J. Harrington, “Paleogeographic Development of South America,”
American Association of Petroleum Geologists 46 (1962): 1773–1814.Other articles
and books on the subject are R. S. Dietz and J. C. Holden, “The Breakup of
Pangaea,” in Continents Adrift and Continents Aground (San Francisco, 1976), 102–
13;C.W.Stearn, R. L. Carroll, and T. H. Clark, Geological Evolution of North
America, 3rd ed. (New York, 1979); Tim Flannery, The Eternal Frontier (New York,
2001); A.N. Ab’Saber, The Paleoclimate and Paleoecology of Brazilian Amazonia,in
G. T. Prance, ed., Biological Diversification in the Tropics (New York, 1982), 41–59;
R. A. Houghton, D. S. Lefkowitz, and D. L. Skole, “Changes in the Landscape
of Latin America between 1850 and 1985.I.Progressive Loss of Forests,” and “II.
NetRelease of CO
2
to the Atmosphere,” Forest Ecology and Management 38 (1991):
143–72; 173–99.
The distribution of plants, animals, and ecosystems is summarized in a number
of works. Gonzalo Halffter has edited a monumental work, La diversidad biol
´
ogica
de Iberoam
´
erica, 3 vols. (Mexico City, 1998), that documents the biological diversity
in Latin American countries. A comprehensive ecogeographic description of South
America can be found in E. J. Fiskau et al., eds., Biogeography and Ecology of
South America, 2 vols. (The Hague, 1968–9). Also useful are Harold Blakemore
and Clifford T. Smith, Latin America: Geographical Perspectives (London, 1971);
and T. A. Stone et al., “A Map of the Vegetation of South America Based on
Satellite Imagery,” Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 60 (1994): 541–
51.Anassessment of resources and trends in their use can be found in M. J.
Dourojeanni, Situation and Trends of Renewable Natural Resources of Latin America
and the Caribbean (Lima, 1980).
Forindividual countries, see, for Cuba, A. Borhidi, “The Main Vegetation
Units of Cuba,” Acta Botanica Hungarica 3–4 (1987): 151–85; and The Phytogeog-
raphy and Ecology of Cuba (Budapest, 1989). For the Choco forest of Colombia,
see R. C. West, The Pacific Lowlands of Colombia (Baton Rouge, LA, 1957). For
savannas, see Guillermo Sarmiento, The Ecology of Neotropical Savannas (Cam-
bridge, MA, 1984); for the Brazilian savannas, see George Eiten, “The Cerrado
Vegetation of Brazil,” Botanical Review 38 (1972): 201–341; for the Argentine desert
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696 Bibliographical Essays
areas, see Gordon Orians and Otto T. Solbrig, eds., Convergent Evolution in Warm
Deserts (Stroudsburg, PA, 1977); for Patagonia, see Alberto Soriano, Clara Movia,
and Rolando Le
´
on, “Deserts and Semideserts of Patagonia,” in N. E. West, ed.,
Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts (Amsterdam, 1983), 440–54; for the Argentine
pampa, see Alberto Soriano et al., “R
´
ıo de la Plata Grasslands,” in R. T. Coupland,
ed., Ecosystems of the World (Amsterdam, 1991).
On the relation between environment and economic growth, we can mention
J. Grunwald and P. Musgrove, Natural Resources in Latin American Development
(Baltimore, 1970); D. Goodman and M. Redclift, Environment and Development
in Latin America (Manchester, 1991); W. Sachs, “Global Ecology and the Shadow
of Development,” in W. Sachs, ed., Global Ecology (Halifax, 1993); and Hermann
Daly, Beyond Growth (Boston, 1996). Another critical book is Arturo Escobar,
Encountering Development. The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Prince-
ton, NJ, 1995). The relation between environment and life style is discussed by
a number of authors in Osvaldo Sunkel and Nicolo Gligo, eds., Estilos de desar-
rollo y medio ambiente en la Am
´
erica Latina, 2 vols. (Mexico City, 1980). H. J.
Leonard discusses Natural Resources and Economic Development in Central America
(Washington, DC, 1987).
A large number of works deal with the relation between agricultural develop-
ment and environmental change, usually in a negative vein. See C. J. R. Alho and
E. Souza Martins, De gr
˜
ao em gr
˜
ao, o Cerrado perde espac¸o (Brasilia, 1995), which
documents the environmental change in the Brazilian savannas, as do Carlos Klink,
Adriana Moreira, and Otto T. Solbrig in “Ecological Impact of Agricultural Devel-
opment in the Brazilian Cerrados,” in M. D. Young and O. T. Solbrig, eds.,
The World’s Savannas (Carnforth, 1993); and also E. Wagner “Desenvolvimento da
regi
˜
ao dos Cerrados,” in W. Goedert, ed., Solos dos Cerrados. Tecnologias e estrategias
de manejo (S
˜
ao Paulo, 1984). Otto T. Solbrig and Ernesto Viglizzo address the
issue of agriculture and environment for the Argentine pampas in “Sustainable
Farming in the Argentine Pampas: History, Society, Economy and Ecology,” (The
David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University, Work-
ing Papers on Latin America No. 99/00-1, Cambridge MA, 1999); and in Ernesto
Viglizzo et al., “Environmental Sustainability of Argentine Agriculture: Patterns,
Gradients and Tendencies 1960–2000”(Working Papers on Latin America No.
01/02-2, The David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard Uni-
versity, 2002). Otto T. Solbrig and Raul Vera address the impact of Globalization
in “Impact of Globalization on the Grasslands in the Southern Cone of South
America” (Working Papers on Latin America No. 00/01-2, The David Rockefeller
Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University, 2001). Carl F. Jordan
has studied the relation between nutrients and slash-and-burn agriculture in An
Amazonian Rain Forest (Carnforth, 1989).
Deforestation and its consequences have produced a number of scholarly works.
Deforestation in the Amazon basin has attracted most of the attention. Worthy
of mention are Anthony Anderson, “Deforestation in Amazonia: Dynamics,
Causes, and Alternatives,” in A.B. Anderson, ed., Alternatives to Deforestation:
Steps Towards Sustainable Use of Amazon Rain Forest (New York, 1990); D. Bryant,
D. Nielsen, and Laura Tangley, The Last Frontier Forest: Ecosystems and Economy
at the Edge (Washington, DC, 1997); and Keith S. Brown and G. G. Brown,
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“Habitat Alteration and Species Loss in Brazilian Forests,” in T. C. Whitmore
and J. A. Sayer, eds., Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction (London, 1992).
Phillip M. Fearnside has been one of the most active students of Amazonian
deforestation. See his “Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: How Fast Is It
Occurring,” Interciencia 7 (1982): 82–8;“Development Alternatives in the Brazilian
Amazon: An Ecological Evaluation,” Interciencia 8 (1983): 65–78;“Spatial Concen-
tration of Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon,” Ambio 15 (1986): 74–81; and
“Forest Management in Amazonia: The Need for New Criteria in Evaluating
Development Options,” Forest Ecology and Management 27 (1989): 61–79. Another
very important book is UNESCO’s (United Nations Envirnoment, Science and
Culture Organization) State of Knowledge Report Tropical Forest Ecosystems (Paris,
1978), now slightly out of date. UNESCO has also published a symposium vol-
ume edited by Arturo G
´
omez Pompa, T. C. Whitmore, and Malcolm Hadley,
Rain Forest Regeneration and Management (Carnforth, 1991). Another work is D.
Skole, et al., “Physical and Human Dimensions of Deforestation in Amazonia,”
BioScience 44 (1994): 314–22. Carl Jordan has edited two important books on
Amazonian deforestation and its consequences: Amazonian Rain Forests: Ecosystem
Disturbance and Recovery (New York, 1987) and An Amazonian Rain Forest: The
Structure and Function of a Nutrient Stressed Ecosystem and the Impact of Slash-
and-Burn Agriculture (Paris, 1989). Finally, two other important multiauthored
volumes are D. Goodman and A. Hall, eds., The Future of the Amazon. Destruction
or Sustainable Development (London, 1990); and M. Cl
¨
usener-Godt and I. Sachs,
eds., Brazilian Perspectives on Sustainable Development of the Amazon Region (Paris,
1995).
Deforestation outside the Amazon Basin is also well documented. For Cen-
tral America and Mexico, see R. P. Tucker, “Foreign Investors, Timber Extrac-
tion and Forest Depletion in Central America Before 1941,” in H. K. Steen and
R. P. Tucker, eds., Changing Tropical Forests (Durham, NC, 1992); R. Daubenmire,
“Some Ecological Consequences of Converting Forest to Savanna in Northwestern
Costa Rica,” Tr opical Ecology 13 (1972): 31–51;Rodolfo Dirzo and M. G. Garcia,
“Rates of Deforestation in Los Tuxtlas, A Neotropical Area in Southeast Mex-
ico,” Biological Conservation (1991); S. Harrison, “Population Growth, Land Use
and Deforestation in Costa Rica, 1950–1984,” Interciencia 16 (1991): 83–93; S.A.
Sader and A.T. Joyce, “Deforestation Rates and Trends in Costa Rica,” Biotrop-
ica 20 (1988): 11–19; S.A. Sader et al., “Forest Change Estimates for the Northern
Pet
´
en Region of Guatemala,” Human Ecology 22 (1994): 317–32; and M.P. Lehman,
“Deforestation and Changing Land-Use Patterns in Costa Rica,” in H.K. Steen
and R.P. Tucker, eds., Changing Tropical Forests (Durham, NC, 1992). Norman
Myers has pointed out the relation between deforestation and cattle-raising in
“The Hamburger Connection: How Central American Forests Become North
America’s Hamburgers,” Ambio 10 (1981): 3–8.See also his earlier study, Conversion
Rates in Tropical Moist Forests (Washington, DC, 1979).
Finally, deforestation in South America outside of Amazonia is discussed, among
others, by P. Aldhous, “Tropical Deforestation: Not Just a Problem in Amazonia,”
Science 259 (1993): 1390–1; C.J.R. Alho, T. Lacher, and H. Gonc¸alves, “Envi-
ronmental Degradation in the Pantanal Ecosystem,” BioScience 38 (1988): 164–
71;P.Boomgaard, “Exploitation and Management of the Surinam Forests,”
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in Steen and Tucker, Changing Tropical Forests (cited previously); W. Dean, “Defor-
estation in Southeastern Brazil,” in C. Tucker and R. Richards, eds., Global Defor-
estation and the Nineteenth Century World Economy (Durham, NC, 1983); J.M.G.
Kleinpenning and E.B. Zoomers, “Environmental Degradation in Latin America:
The Example of Paraguay,” Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 78
(1987): 242–50;T.T.Veblen, “Degradation of Native Forest Resources in South-
ern Chile,” in H. K. Steen, ed., History of Sustained-Yield Forestry. A Sympo-
sium (Durham, NC, 1984); J. Veillon, “Deforestation in the Western Llanos of
Venezuela between 1950 and 1975,” in Hamilton et al., eds., Tr opical Rain Forest Use
and Preservation. A Study of Problems and Practice in Venezuela (Washington, DC,
1976).
A comprehensive modeling effort of the environmental impact of development
by a number of researchers under the direction of Gilberto Gallopin is detailed
in El futuro ecol
´
ogico de un continente. Una visi
´
on prospectiva de la am
´
erica latina,
2 vols. (Tokyo, 1995).
Economic aspects of deforestation are discussed by F. B. Barbier et al., “The
Economics of Tropical Deforestation,” Ambio 20 (1991): 55–9; and E. B. Barbier
and J. C.Burgess, “The Economics of Tropical Forest Land Use,” Land Economics 73
(1997): 174–95. Also see Chris Uhl and G. Parker, “Is a Quarter-Pound Hamburger
WorthaHalf-Ton of Rain Forest?,” Interciencia 11 (1986): 210; and B. Gibson, “The
Environmental Consequences of Stagnation in Nicaragua,” WorldDevelopment 24
(1996): 325–39.
J. O. Browder discusses social aspects of deforestation in “The Social Costs of
Rain Forest Destruction: A Critique and Economic Analysis of the ‘Hamburger
Debate,’” Interciencia 13 (1988): 115–20;asdoes S. Stonich in “The Dynamics of
Social Processes and Environmental Destruction: A Central American Case Study,”
Population and Development Review 19 (1989): 269–96. Also see R. B. Norgaard,
“Sociosystem and Ecosystem Coevolution in the Amazon,” Journal of Environ-
mental Economics and Management 8 (1981): 238–54; and “Beyond Materialism: A
Coevolutionary Reinterpretation of the Environmental Crisis,” Review of Social
Economy 53 (1995): 475–92. The same topics are the subject of M. Painter and
W. H. Durham, eds., The Social Causes of Environmental Destruction in Latin
America (Ann Arbor, MI, 1995). Juan Mart
´
ınez Alier, “Ecological Economics and
Ecosocialism,” in M. O’Connor, ed., Is Capitalism Sustainable? (New York, 1994)
introduces a Marxist perspective. The relation between social sciences and environ-
ment is discussed further in two symposia books: Enrique Leff, ed., Ciencias sociales
y formaci
´
on ambiental (Barcelona, 1995); and Enrique Leff and Julia Carabias, eds.,
Cultura y manejo de los recursos naturales sustentables, 2 vols. (Mexico City, 1993).
Roberto Guimaraes discusses the politics of the environment in Brazil in The
Ecopolitics of Development in the Third World. Politics and Environment in Brazil
(Boulder, CO, 1991). Enrique Leff has also edited a volume dealing with knowl-
edge and environment, Los problemas del conocimiento y la perspectiva ambiental
del desarrollo (Mexico City, 1986). Finally, I mention a book that deals with the
interphase between theology and environment; Leonardo Boff, Dignitas Terrae.
Ecologia: Grito da Terra, grito dos pobres (S
˜
ao Paulo, 1995).
The relation of deforestation and climate change is the subject of several studies,
among them, F. A. B. Eltahir and R. L. Bras, “Sensitivity of Regional Climate to
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Deforestation in the Amazon Basin,” Advances in Water Resources 17 (1994): 101–15;
J. Shukla, C. Nobre, and P. Sellers, “Amazon Deforestation and Climate Change,”
Science 247 (1990): 1322–5;Eneas Salati and B. Vose, “Amazon Basin: A System
in Equilibrium,” Science 225 (1984): 129–38: and Eneas Salati, “The Climatology
and Hydrology of Amazonia,” in G. T. Prance and T. Lovejoy, eds., Amazonia
(London, 1985); C. A. Nobre, P. J. Sellers, and J. Shukla, “Amazonian Deforestation
and Regional Climatic Change,” Journal of Climatology 4 (1991): 957–88;J.Lean,
and D. A. Warrilow, “Simulation of the Regional Climatic Impact of Amazon
Deforestation,” Nature 342 (1989): 411–13; and J. Lean and P. R. Rowntree, “A
GCM Simulation of the Impact of Amazonian Deforestation on Climate Using
Improved Canopy Representation,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological
Society 119 (1993): 509–30.
The very serious issue of water resources is tackled by C. Barrow, “The Impact
of Hydroelectric Development on the Amazonian Environment: With Particular
Reference to the Tacuru
´
ıProject,” Journal of Biogeography 15 (1988): 67–78;C.J.
Bauer, “Bringing Water Markets Down to Earth: The Political Economy of Water
Rights in Chile 1976–95,” WorldDevelopment 25 (1997): 639–56;E.Monosowski,
“Brazil’s Tacuru
´
ıDam: Development at Environmental Cost,” in E. Goldsmith
and N. Hildyard, eds., The Social and Environmental Effects of Large Dams,vol. 2,
Case Studies (San Francisco, CA, 1986); P. D. Vaux and C. R. Goldman, “Dams
and Development in the Topics: The Role of Applied Ecology,” in R. Goodland,
ed., Race to Save the Tropics (Washington, DC, 1991).
Soil management, erosion, and degradation are dealt with in a number of pub-
lications, among them J. M. Maass, Carl Jordan, and Jos
´
eSarukhan, “Soil Ero-
sion and Nutrient Losses in Seasonal Tropical Agroecosystems Under Various
Management Techniques,” Journal of Applied Ecology 25 (1988): 595–607;R.J.
Buschbacher, Chris Uhl, and E. A. Serr
˜
ao, “Abandoned Pastures in Amazonia. II.
Nutrient Stocks in the Soil and Vegetation,” Journal of Ecology 76 (1988): 682–99;
R. P. Detwiler, “Land Use Change and the Global Carbon Cycle: The Role of
Tr opical Soils,” Biogeochemistry 2 (1986): 67–93;Wenceslau Goedert, “Manage-
ment of the Cerrado Soils of Brazil: A Review,” Journal of Soil Science 34 (1983):
405–28.
E. Dinnerstein et al., Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin
America and the Caribbean (Washington, DC, 1995), provides a very useful and
timely assessment of conservation needs for Latin America. A different approach is
that of assessing change through selected indicators, as done by Manuel Winograd,
Environmental Indicators for Latin American and the Caribbean: Toward Land-Use
Sustainability (Cali, 1995); and Manuel Winograd, A. Farrow, and J. Eade, Atlas de
indicadores para Am
´
erica Latina y el Caribe (Cali, 1998).
Data on land transformation and deforestation rates are very difficult to obtain.
One source is the FAO FAOSTAT database in Rome [http://www.fao.org]. FAO
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) has published a series
of assessments of tropical forests: FAO/UNEP Tr opical Forest Resources Assessment
Project,vol. 1, Los recursos forestales de am
´
erica tropical (Rome, 1981); FAO, Trop-
ical Forest Resources (FAO Forestry Paper 30,Rome, 1982); FAO, Forest Resources
Assessment 1990:Global Synthesis (Rome, 1995); FAO, Forest Resources Assessment
1990.Survey of Tropical Forest Cover and Study of Change Processes (FAO Forestry
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700 Bibliographical Essays
Paper No. 130,Rome, 1996); FAO, State of the World’s Forests 1997 (Rome, 1997); S.
Brown, Estimating Biomass and Biomass Change of Tropical Forests. A Primer (FAO
Forestry Paper No. 134,Rome, 1997). Another source is the annual survey on World
Resources published by The World Resources Institute and Oxford University Press
(Washington, DC).
CHAPTER 10 (BLANCA S
´
ANCHEZ-ALONSO)
This bibliographical essay is divided in four parts according to the sections of the
chapter. Each part contains the basic bibliographical material used in writing the
chapter and some other useful references. For obvious reasons, not all the countries
in Latin America have been subjects of research. Immigration to Argentina and the
Argentine experience is, by far, the best known case and the number of titles and
monographs for this country is much higher than for Brazil, Uruguay, or Cuba.
This essay is also intended to get the reader started on particular topics and is
by no means exhaustive.
Section I
Data on immigration have always been the subject of criticism because legal defini-
tions of migrants varied from country to country. It is always discussed whether the
figures actually reflect the true number of migrants because of various reasons: clan-
destine emigration from European ports, re-emigration movements across coun-
tries of destination, passengers arriving by sea versus migrants according to the
legal definition, and so on. Arrival data for countries of immigration have always
been thought to be more reliable than departure data (and the other way around
for source countries) and there are many problems in estimating net migration
data. The most widely used collection of migration statistics is Imre Ferenczi and
Walter F. Willcox, International Migrations, 2 vols. (New York, 1929, 1931). The
first volume presents in a very detailed way migration statistics for a large group of
countries according to official figures of each country. The second volume contains
chapters for individual countries discussing the main characteristics of particular
migratory flows.
Particularly relevant for the major countries of immigration in Latin America
is the volume Inmigraci
´
on y estad
´
ısticas en el cono sur de Am
´
erica. Argentina, Brasil,
Chile y Uruguay.Instituto Panamericano de Geograf
´
ıa e Historia. Organizaci
´
on
de los Estados Americanos. Serie Inmigraci
´
on, vol. VI (M
´
exico, 1990). It not only
includes official statistics but census data as well. Data on immigration and other
demographic variables for Latin American countries can also be found in Brian
R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics. The Americas 1750–1988 (Basingtoke,
England, 1993).
It is also useful to consult other official sources such as Instituto Brasileiro
de Geograf
´
ıa e Estad
´
ıstica, Estad
´
ısticas hist
´
oricas do Brasil: Series Econ
´
omicas,
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Bibliographical Essays 701
Demogr
´
aficas e Sociais, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1988); Rep
´
ublica de Cuba, Inmigraci
´
on
ymovimiento de pasajeros,Secretar
´
ıa de Hacienda, Secci
´
on Estad
´
ısticas (La Habana
1902–1932); Direcci
´
on General de Inmigraci
´
on, Resumen estad
´
ıstico del movimiento
migratorio de la Rep
´
ublica argentina, 1857–1924,Ministerio de Agricultura (Buenos
Aires, 1925). A useful collection of statistics for Argentina is Vicente V
´
azquez
Presedo (1971 and 1976), Estad
´
ısticas Hist
´
oricas Argentinas (comparadas), vol. 1,
1875–1914;vol. 2, 1914–1939 (Buenos Aires, 1976).
As regards the major source countries in Europe of immigrants to Latin America,
some scholars have attempted to refine the available statistics. Among others,
see Joachim Costa Leite, “Emigrac¸ao portuguesa; a lei e os numeros (1855–
1914),” Analise Social XXIII, 97 (1987), 463–80, and Maria Baghana, Portuguese
Emigration to the United States, 1820–1930 (New York, 1990), for the Portuguese
case; Blanca S
´
anchez-Alonso, “Una nueva serie anual de la emigraci
´
on espa
˜
nola,
1882–1930,” Revista de Historia Econ
´
omica VIII, 1 (1990), 133–72, for the Spanish
case; Gianfausto Rosoli, ed., Un secolo di emigrazione italiana, 1876–1976 (Roma,
1978); and Marcello Carmagnani and Giovanna Mantelli, “Fonti quantitative ital-
iane relative all’emigrazione italiana verso l’America Latina (1902–1914). Analisi
critica,” Annali della Fondazione Luigi Einaudi 9 (1975), 283–301.
Data on real wages used in this chapter come from Jeffrey G. Williamson, “Real
Wages Inequality and Globalization in Latin America before 1940,” in Pablo Mart
´
ın
Ace
˜
na, Adolfo Meisel, and Carlos Newland, eds., La historia econ
´
omica en Am
´
erica
Latina, Revista de Historia Econ
´
omica,Special issue (1999), 101–42. All the sources
and data are included also in Jeffrey Williamson, “Real Wages and Relative Factor
Prices in the Third World, 1820–1940: Latin America,” (Discussion Paper no. 1853,
Harvard Institute of Economic Research, October 1998). Although Williamson’s
real wages can be criticized, data come from well-know sources for individual coun-
tries such as Roberto Cort
´
es Conde, El progreso argentino, 1880–1914 (Buenos Aires,
1979), for Argentina; Luis Bertola et al., “Southern Cone Real Wages Compared: A
Purchasing Power Parity Approach to Convergence and Divergence Trends, 1870–
1996”(Working Paper, Unidad Multidisciplinaria, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales,
Montevideo, February 1998), for Uruguay; Gustavo M. Gomes, The Roots of State
Intervention in the Brazilian Economy (New York, 1986), for Brazil (wages for Rio de
Janeiro can also be found in Raymond Goldsmith, Brazil, 1850–1984.[SaoPaulo,
1981]); and Oscar Zanetti and Alejandro Garc
´
ıa, United Fruit Company: Un caso
del dominio imperialista en Cuba (La Habana, 1976), for Cuba. For immigrants’
sources of income other than wages in the coffee plantations of southeast Brazil,
see Thomas Holloway, Immigrants on the Land. Coffee and Society in S
˜
ao Paulo,
1886–1934 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980). A very useful work for wages and gross domes-
tic product in Latin America in the twentieth century is Pablo Astorga and Valpy
Fitzgerald, “The Standard of Living in Latin America during the Twentieth Cen-
tury” (Working Paper, Queen Elizabeth House Development Studies, no. 117,May
1997).
Data for passage fares to Latin America are scarce. Alejandro V
´
azquez Gonzalez,
“La emigraci
´
on gallega a Am
´
erica, 1830–1930”(Ph.D. dissertation, Universidad
de Santiago de Compostela, 1999), provides annual data for passage fares from
Spanish ports, but similar information is not available for Portugal or Italy.