Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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LUPIN

L C Trugo, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

D von Baer, Universidade de Concepcio

n, Concepcio

Chile

E von Baer, CAMPEX Semillas Baer, Temuco, Chile

Introduction

0001 Lupin is a legume plant from which the seeds have

been used as food and feed from ancient times. The

green plant has been used extensively in some coun-

tries as forage for animal feeding and also as organic

material for soil enrichment or in crop rotation. Des-

pite its qualities and potential, it has not become a

major world crop. This article will review the main

characteristics of this plant, the nutritive value of its

seeds, and the uses and potential for more extensive

production.

The Plant and its Origin

0002 Lupin or lupine are trivial names for plants of the

genus Lupinus belonging to the Leguminosae family,

subfamily Papilonoideae. This genus is very diverse

and contains several known species. It is an annual

plant, usually 0.3–2 m in height, with a highly

branched stem, digitated leaves, and a shrubby growth

pattern. The flowers formed high above the leaves,

may be of several different colors (white, yellow,

purple, blue), and exude a honey-like aroma. The

roots are relatively long, usually nodular, and may

grow down to 3 m. The lupin plant has the ability to

fix nitrogen and mobilize phosphorus and other elem-

ents by the exudation of citrate to the soil. This is very

important for soil enrichment in infertile areas. The

pods are normally flat and with a hairy aspect on the

outside. They vary in length (4–10 cm) and,

depending on the species, have different types of

seeds that may vary in size, shape, or color. However,

the endosperm is usually yellowish, and the most

common seeds are flattened (Lupinus albus)or

ovoid (Lupinus mutabilis) with diameters in the

range 2–15 mm. It is a plant well adapted to poor

sandy and acid soils and also to high altitudes, and

to temperate climates, as found in Europe. The most

important species that are produced on a commercial

scale are L. albus, L. angustifolius, L. luteus, and

L. mutabilis (see color plate 101).

0003 The lupin has its origin in the Old World in the

Mediterranean region, and also in the New World, in

North America and in the Andean highlands. Some

representative examples of the former are L. albus,

L. angustifolius, L. luteus, and L. consentinii. Tarwi

is the indigenous name of L. mutabilis, which is the

lupin found in the Andes (Table 1). However, there

are probably more than 200 wild species, most of

them in the New World. L. albus was cultivated as a

food by the ancient Romans, Egyptians, and Greeks;

however, due to its bitter taste, the mature seed had to

be submitted to prolonged washing before consump-

tion. A similar treatment was also used by the ancient

inhabitants of the Andes. The seeds of tarwi were

boiled, thoroughly washed in a river for several

days, and then properly cooked for immediate con-

sumption or dried for future use. Presently, several

different species of lupins are grown in Europe, some

parts of Africa, South America, Australia, and New

Zealand, including a number of sweet low-alkaloid

varieties that are now commercially available.

Nutritive Value

0004Lupin seeds show similar nutritive attributes to soya

beans, particularly with respect to protein and fat

content. Some species may have protein contents up

to 50 g per 100 g and up to 22 g per 100 g of fat in the

seeds. The proximate composition of seeds of some

relevant lupin species are presented in Table 2. The

protein and fat content may be further increased by

dehulling the seeds.

Protein

0005The lupin seed is one of the richest sources of plant

protein. The protein content varies largely between

species, with L. mutabilis and L. luteus presenting

unusually high values (near 50 g per 100 g), surpassing

most soya bean cultivars, whereas L. albus presents

an intermediate protein content and L. angustifolius

lower values. Lupin seed protein provides all the

tbl0001Table 1 Taxonomic and common names of some commercial

lupin species

Species Common names

L. albus

White lupin, Egyptian lupin, tremoo

altramuz

L. angustifolius

Blue lupin, narrow-leafed lupin

L. luteus

Yellow lupin, tremosilla

L.mutabilis

Tarwi, tauri, tarhui, chocho

, Andean lupin

Mediterranean origin.

Portuguese name.

Spanish names: altramuz may be used also to designate other species.

Andean origin; tarwi, tauri, and tarhul are from native languages.

LUPIN 3623

essential amino acids, but some of them are not found

in sufficient amounts for all sectors of the population.

When lupin seed is used for animal feeding, such as

ruminants or single-stomach animals, the relatively

low level of methionine may be complemented by

adequate formulation of the ration or by supplemen-

tation with the synthetic amino acid. Table 3 shows

the amino acid composition of seeds of some relevant

lupin species and the amino acid requirements for

infants and adults established by a Food and Agricul-

ture Organization/World Health Organization/United

Nations University (FAO/WHO/UNU) joint commit-

tee (1985). When comparing the lupin amino acid

profiles with the requirements for adults, all lupin

species show ranges of essential amino acids with

adequate amounts, and this will be observed also for

most pulses. However, if the requirements for infants

are used for comparison, it is apparent that lupin

protein will show many essential amino acid deficien-

cies, with tryptophan being the most limiting, having

a chemical score (CS) of 47–59%, followed by me-

thionine plus cystine. The chemical score (CS) is the

ratio of the content of an individual essential amino

acids in food protein to the content of the same amino

acid in a reference pattern expressed as a percentage.

It must be taken into account that, if requirements for

infants are used for comparison, even beef protein

will be deficient in leucine, lysine, methionineþ

cystine, tryptophan, and valine, and egg protein will

be deficient in leucine and lysine. However, if the

previous FAO/73 amino acid pattern is used as a

reference, methionineþcystine will be the limiting

amino acids for lupin (56–71% CS), as in most pulses

(soya bean 83% CS). Consequently, it is strongly

recommended that the intended nutritional applica-

tion of lupin seeds or lupin products be defined to

allow a more realistic assessment of the protein qual-

ity. From Table 3, it can be seen that the amino acid

profile varies considerably with lupin species. Large

variations are also observed in biological indicators

for protein-quality assessment. Nevertheless, protein

utilization, as measured by the net protein utilization

(NPU) index, does not correspond exactly to the

amino acid CS of different lupin species. For example,

L. angustifolius shows a relatively high CS (60%,

FAO/85 for infants) but presents the lowest NPU

(43%). Despite its amino acid composition, active

biological components appear to have a negative in-

fluence on the NPU of L. angustifolius protein in rats.

L. albus shows the highest NPU (70%) followed by

L. mutabilis (64%). These figures approach the NPU

of the soya bean (69%). Overall, lupin protein should

be considered a good plant source of protein for

tbl0003 Table 3 Amino acid composition of lupin seeds

Amino acid Concentration (mg pergram of protein) FAOrecommendations

L.albus

L.angustifolius

L.luteus

L.mutabilis

InfantsAdults

Histidine 22 27 29 26 26 16

Isoleucine 44 40 37 57 46 13

Leucine 75 71 79 71 93 19

Lysine 47 46 49 58 66 16

Mehionine 7 7 7 9

Cystine 16 18 24 11

Methionine þ cystine 23 25 31 20 42 17

Phenylalanine 35 37 39 38

Tyrosine 46 34 27 40

Phenylalanine þ tyrosine 81 71 66 78 72 19

Threonine 36 34 32 38 43 9

Tryptophan 8 8 10 8 17 5

Valine 39 35 32 41 55 13

Adapted from Gross R (1988) Lupins in human nutrition. Proceedings of the 5th International Lupin Conference, pp. 51–63, with permission.

Adapted from Gross R, Koch F, Malaga I et al. (1989) Chemical composition and protein quality of some local Andean food sources. Food Chemistry 34:

25–34, with permission.

FAO/WHO/UNU (1985) Necessidades de Energia y Proteinas. Geneva: World Health Organization.

tbl0002 Table 2 Major components of lupin seeds

Species TCW (g)

b,c

Protein

Oil

Ash Fiber

L. albus 370 38.2 9.5 3.1 14.0

L. angustifolius 165 28.9 6.6 3.2 17.6

L. consentinii 165 32.2 2.6 3.7

L. hispanicus 71 48.2 5.8 2.9 19.6

L. luteus 164 49.2 4.8 5.3 17.6

L.mutabilis 211 46.6 15.8 3.6 9.0

Results expressed in grams per 100 g of dry matter (except TCW).

Thousand corn weight.

Data adapted from Trugo LC, Almeida DCF and Gross R (1988)

Oligosaccharide contents in the seeds of cultivated lupins. Journal of the

Science of Food and Agriculture 45: 21–24, with permission.

Adapted from Muzquiz M, Burbano C, Bouthelier V et al. (1982) Estudio de

los elementos esenciales de destintas variedades de cinco especies del

Genus Lupins cultivadas y espontaneas de la Peninsula Iberica. In:

Proceedings of the 2nd International Lupin Conference, pp. 173–181.

3624 LUPIN

animal and human nutrition. However, the appropri-

ate application and the variation encountered be-

tween species must be considered for assessing lupin

protein quality. (See Amino Acids: Metabolism;

Protein: Quality.)

Fat

0006 The fat content of lupin seeds varies considerably

between species. In some species, the lipid fraction

contributes substantially to the total energy value,

whereas in others, it is present in relatively small

amounts (Table 2). L. mutabilis has the highest oil

content (up to 22 g per 100 g) and is considered to be

a potential material for oil production. L. albus has a

combination of high protein and an intermediate fat

content, which are important attributes for a food,

especially if it is to be used in developing countries

where protein and energy are scarce. The fatty acid

distribution in the oil fraction is also variable between

species. However, low levels of saturated fatty acids

are normally found. A very high content of linolenic

acid is present, particularly in L. albus and L. luteus.

As in other seeds, high levels of oleic acid are common

for all species, particularly L. albus and L. mutabilis

(Table 4). The ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids

(PUFA) to saturated fatty acids (SFA) in lupin seeds

is in the range 1.3–2.9:1, which is considerably higher

than beef but lower than the soya bean (4.0). Higher

rates are important, since it has been strongly recom-

mended that a reduction of SFA in favor of an increase

of PUFA in the diet should be achieved, to assist coro-

nary heart disease prevention. Linoleic acid, which is

an essential fatty acid, is found in significant amounts

in lupin seed, with L. luteus being the richest source

(44%). Linolenic acid, which is the most important

source of o-3 fatty acids, is found at very high levels

in L. albus and L. luteus, but at relatively low levels in

L. angustifolius and L. mutabilis (Table 4). L. mutabilis

may be commercially used for oil production, and its

low linolenic acid content, although not so nutrition-

ally important as in other sources, may be advanta-

geous to improve its conservation in comparison with

other vegetable oils. Considering the fatty acid profile

of lupin seeds, it is noted that L. mutabilis and L. albus

are more similar to peanut oil, whereas L. angustifolius

and L. luteus resemble maize oils, although they differ

in flavor. (See Essential Fatty Acids; Fatty Acids:Prop-

erties; Gamma-linolenic Acid; Peanuts.)

Carbohydrates

0007In contrast with many legumes, lupin seeds are prac-

tically devoid of starch, and the major carbohydrates

in mature seeds are oligosaccharides and nonstarchy

polysaccharides, particularly from the cell wall struc-

ture. The oligosaccharides found in the cotyledons

are sucrose and nondigestible galactosides of the raf-

finose family. The main galactosides present in lupin

seeds are raffinose (degree of polymerization, DP, of

3), stachyose (DP of 4) and verbascose (DP of 5)

(Table 5). These oligosaccharides are derived from

sucrose, with increasing numbers of a-galactosyl

units linked to C6 of glucose. They are present in

most legumes and are not digested by monogastric

animals and hence contribute to the flatulent prop-

erty of legumes. More recently, nondigestible sugars

have been used as agents for fermentation in the

intestines, thus helping to maintain and regulate the

microbial intestinal flora. In this aspect, lupin may be

an important row material for production of oligo-

saccharides of the raffinose family to be used as

functional food ingredients. The polysaccharides

are present as major components of the cell wall

surrounding the cytosol. Only a small number (1%)

of polysaccharides are water-soluble, and, together

with oligosaccharides, they are important as a source

of energy for seed germination. The amount of

tbl0004 Table 4 Fatty acid composition of lupin seeds in comparison with soya beans

Legume Percentage of total fatty acids

14:0 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 22:0 22:1 24:0 SFA

MUFA

PUFA

L. albus 0.2 7.2 0.5 2.1 48.6 19.9 13.0 0.8 4.4 2.2 1.2 16 51 33

L. angustifolius 0.3 11.0 0.2 6.2 33.5 39.4 4.6 0.7 2.6 0.2 0.5 21 34 44

L.luteus 0.3 5.5 0.2 2.8 24.3 43.9 10.6 2.4 7.0 1.1 1.0 19 26 55

L. mutabilis 0.2 11.5 0.5 9.9 45.7 27.3 2.3 0.9 1.2 tr 0.3 24 46 30

Glycine max (soya bean)

nd 10.0 0.2 4.0 25.0 52.0 7.4 nd tr tr tr 10 26 64

Fatty acids: 14:0, myristic; 16:0, palmitic; 16:1, palmitoleic: 18:0, stearic; 18:1, oleic; 18:2, linoleic; 18:3, linolenic; 20:0, arachidic; 22:0, behenic; 22:1,

erucic; 24:0, lignoceric.

SFA, total saturated fatty acids; MUFA, total monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, total polyunsaturated fatty acids; nd, not determined.

Adapted from Ayorinde FO, Garvin K and Saeed K (2000) Determination of the fatty acid composition of saponified vegetable oils using MALDI

-TOFMS.

Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 14: 608–615. Other data adapted from Muzquiz M, Burbano C, Bouthelier V et al. (1982) Estudio de los

elementos essenciales de destinadas variedades de cinco especies del Genus Lupinus cultivadas y espontaneas de la Peninsula Iberica. In:

Proceedingsofthe2ndInternationalLupinConference,pp. 173–181. (see Table 2).

tr, traces.

LUPIN 3625

polysaccharides in lupin seeds is dependent on the

species, with high contents found in L. albus and

L. angustifolius and the lowest in L. mutabilis, due

to its thinner seed hull. Due to the polysaccharide

composition, lupins are extraordinarily rich sources

of fiber. Crude fiber data are presented in Table 2, but

even higher figures will be encountered if dietary fiber

is considered. Lupin carbohydrates are important

sources of energy only for ruminants, but due to

their characteristics, they may provide useful material

to produce a special high-fiber food for humans. (See

Carbohydrates: Classification and Properties; Dietary

Fiber: Properties and Sources.)

Vitamins and Minerals

0008 The vitamin pattern of lupin seeds is somewhat simi-

lar to other legumes. Lupin seeds are good sources

of vitamins of the B group, particularly niacin, with

levels above 4 mg per 100 g. The thiamin content is

about 0.5 mg per 100 g, and that of riboflavin about

0.4 mg per 100 g. Carotenoids and tocopherols are

present, with the former being mainly responsible

for the color of the oil fraction. The mineral compos-

ition is similar to other legumes in relation to the

major elements, except for calcium, which is low in

all species. However, some differences are found

in respect to trace elements. Manganese is found in

lupins in unusually high amounts, especially in

L. albus. In some varieties of this species, it may

reach values of 83.5–143 mg per 100 g, and this

must be taken into account when it is used in daily

animal or human diet. Nevertheless, common figures

are in the range 2.5–38 mg per 100 g. Lupin seed is

also a good source of iron and zinc, with values in the

range 2.5–14 and 3–18 mg per 100 g, respectively.

Refer to individual vitamins and minerals.

Bioactive compounds

0009 Some components found in natural products may

present biological activity but no nutritional proper-

ties. In fact, some of them may be undesirable for

human and animal nutrition. In lupin, some com-

pounds with these characteristics have been reported.

Compounds sometimes called ‘antinutritional factors’

are present in lupin seeds in the same range as in other

legume seeds, except for trypsin inhibitor, which is

virtually absent in the lupin. Allergenic proteins that

may cause allergenic food reactions sometimes ob-

served in children are less intense with lupins than

with other legume seeds and cow’s milk. However,

because peanut allergies are quite common, further

studies are needed to check some sort of peanut–lupin

cross-allergy when lupin is used as an ingredient of

mixed flour. Some relevant bioactive compounds

found in lupin are the alkaloids, phytates, saponins,

tannins, and flavonoids. (See Allergens; Alkaloids:

Properties and Determination; Phytic Acid: Properties

and Determination; Plant Antinutritional Factors:

Characteristics; Saponins; Trypsin Inhibitors.)

Alkaloids

0010The major alkaloids present in lupin are from the

quinolizidine family, although some gramine alka-

loids may also be found in L. luteus. Quinolizidine

alkaloids have received much attention, because they

have a strong bitter taste and may be toxic in high

doses. Lupanine, sparteine, lupinine, and some forms

of hydroxylated lupanine are some relevant examples.

They have a sedative effect on the central nervous

system, with sparteine producing the strongest effect.

The total alkaloid content in bitter lupins is usually in

the range 1.0–4.5 g per 100 g. Intensive breeding

work carried out, mainly by Sengbush in Germany,

Gladstones in Australia, and Baer in Chile, have led to

the establishment of new lupin varieties practically

devoid of alkaloids. Presently, sweet varieties of

L. luteus, L. angustifolius, L. albus, L. mutabilis,

L. consentinii, and L. atlanticus are defined, of

which the first three are commercially productive.

However, bitter lupins are still largely used in some

regions where the new sweet varieties are not well

adapted. In those cases, the preliminary soaking and

washing procedure before consumption is essential.

(See Alkaloids: Properties and Determination.)

Phytate

0011Phytate is sometimes considered an antinutritional

factor because it is implicated with the impaired ab-

sorption of minerals. It is found in lupin seeds roughly

tbl0005 Table 5 Oligosaccharide composition of seeds of different lupin species

Species Sucrose Raffinose Stachyose Verbascose Gelactosides

L. albus 2.9 1.0 6.6 1.1 8.7

L. angustifolilus 3.4 1.5 5.2 2.0 8.7

L. consentinii 2.6 0.9 4.9 0.9 6.7

L. hispanicus 0.7 0.9 6.6 1.8 9.3

L.huteus 1.7 1.2 4.9 4.1 10.2

L.mutabilis 2.4 2.5 8.5 1.1 12.1

Results expressed in grams per 100 g of dry matter.

3626 LUPIN

in the same concentration range as in other pulses,

but it is usually lower than that found in soya beans.

The average amount found in lupin seed is around

0.8 g per 100 g. The phytate:zinc molar ratio, which

may be an indication of zinc bioavailability, is gener-

ally lower than in other legume seeds, making lupin a

better dietary source of this mineral. The enzymatic

degradation of phytate in the digestive tract or in food

products submitted to special processing may lead to

the formation of inositol phosphates with different

degrees of phosphorylation. Some of these derived

components may be detected as phytates by nonspe-

cific methods, although they may not present mineral

chelation activity. Consequently, more comprehen-

sive information on inositol phosphate composition

of different food items is becoming more important to

assess the real role of food phytate in the daily diet.

More recently, some attention has been directed

to the desirable properties of vegetable phytates,

particularly due to its antioxidative characteristics,

which may be beneficial to counteract free-radical

activity. Other biological properties may be derived

from the lower inositol phosphates since some of

them are involved in cell-signaling mechanisms.

Saponins

0012 Saponins are compounds formed by triterpenoids or

steroidal aglycones and a carbohydrate moiety by

ester or ether linkages. They are present in different

classes of plants, particularly in legumes, roots, and

some medicinal herbs. Their presence in food prod-

ucts has been considered to be deleterious if consumed

frequently. They are toxic to fish and promote retard-

ation of growth in livestock and laboratory animals.

They may also produce erythrocyte lysis in vitro and

may alter intestinal epithelium function making the

mucosa more permeable. Consequently, their con-

tinue use in the diet may jeopardize the process of

nutrient absorption. Conversely, it has been claimed

that they can also be beneficial since they show the

ability to lower plasma cholesterol, they have anti-

cancer activity, and they may act as an inhibitor of

viral replication. It is not yet clear, though, whether

the net effect in the diet would be negative. Some

lupin species such as L. luteus, L. mutabilis, and

L. angustifolius may present a saponin content from

57 to 470 mg kg

1

, but they are not present in

L. albus. However, these figures are still low com-

pared with soyabeans, which present values in the

range 2000–5000 mg kg

1

Tannins

0013 Tannins are complex polyphenolic substances found

in plants, particularly pulses, with the property

to precipitate proteins in aqueous medium. They

interact with one or more protein molecules forming

large cross-linked complexes that are insoluble in

water. This property makes food tannins undesirable

since they will make part of the dietetic protein indi-

gestible. There is a wide variation on the content of

tannins in legume seeds with higher values being

found in faba bean and in peas. Lupin seeds present

relatively low values of tannins in the range

0.2–0.5 g%. No correlation has been found between

the tannin content and the bitter taste of some lupin

seeds, and the impact of tannin from lupin seed in the

diet has not yet been demonstrated both in humans or

animals. However, the level of tannin in L. angusti-

folius has been considered to be low enough for use

in pig diets without any kind of problem.

Flavonoids

0014Flavonoids are a class of phenolic compounds widely

distributed in plants. Quercetin and rutin are among

the most largely found flavonoids in a great variety of

fruits and vegetables, including tea, coffee, and other

grains. As it has been observed with other biological

active nonnutrient components, flavonoids may pro-

mote desirable and nondesirable physiological effects

in humans. The property of flavonoids to induce

goitre has been suggested by studies using peanuts

and millet as foods with millet flavonoids presenting

a strong inhibition effect on thyroperoxidase activity.

The healthy properties of flavonoids may be derived

from their antioxidative characteristics as free-radical

neutralizers. However, some more specific functions

have been reported, including their effect on cancer

prevention, antiinflammatory and antiviral activities,

and their positive effect on capillary fragility and

vascular protection. Data on the presence of flavo-

noids in lupin are scarce, and although it is not clear

whether they are encountered in significant amounts

in lupin seeds, different flavonoids have been reported

recently in the plants of L. luteus and L. albus, includ-

ing those with the aglycones apinegin, genistein, and

kaempferol. (See Phenolic Compounds.)

Crop Diseases

0015Fungal and virus diseases are the most common forms

of lupin crop contamination such as anthracnose,

fusariose, and phomopsis. The first is the main threat

for lupin cultivation in Central and South America,

whereas the latter is the cause of a disease called

lupinosis in animals fed from the infected plant. As

it has been demonstrated in Australia, this problem

may be overcome with an appropriate crop manage-

ment and plant breeding for resistance. Necrotic and

nonnecrotic strains of mosaic viruses may also be

responsible for crop damage, but to a lesser extent

than fungal diseases.

LUPIN 3627

Food Uses

0016 At the present time, the main applications of lupins are

their utilization as green manure and as animal feed.

Due to the ability of lupin plants to fix nitrogen and to

make insoluble phosphorus available in the soil, they

have been used increasingly in the crop-rotation

system as an efficient and less expensive means of

fertilization. For animal feeding, the whole lupin

plant has been used as pasture or forage, or the dry

seeds have been used as a direct soya bean substitute,

or in feeding formulae for pigs, sheep, chickens, dairy

cattle, and other livestock. It has been recommended

that no more than 10–15% of bitter lupins should be

used in pig rations as pigs seem to be more sensitive to

alkaloids than chickens. As mentioned earlier, lupin

seeds have long been an available protein source for

human nutrition. It was a common procedure to

submit the grains to prolonged washing to remove

the bitter taste, and this washing process is still used,

particularly in some regions of South America, where

bitter lupin seeds are mainly used. Although the wash-

ing process may increase the total cost of lupin prod-

ucts, the water treatment will in fact wash out not only

the bitter alkaloids but also the oligosaccharides re-

sponsible for the flatulence of legumes. In addition,

the end product will show increased relative amounts

of protein and oil, on a dry matter basis, due to differ-

ences in component solubilities. It is a common pro-

cedure in the Andean regions to use leached and

cooked bitter lupin seeds directly for consumption as

snacks, in soups, salads, and stews. Alternatively, they

may be dried and/or milled for future use in several

dishes, including baked products. Lupin flour may be

used for cereal protein enrichment since lupins and

cereals have complementary amino acid compos-

itions. Bread or other bakery products have been

made successfully using lupin flour as an additive in

the proportion of 10–20%. Many attempts have been

made to use lupin seeds as direct substitutes for soya

beans, e.g., in fermented products, soya milk, or soya

bean protein isolate. However, lupin protein does not

have exactly the same functional properties as soya

bean protein, being less stable to heat and forming a

milk-like water suspension. Nevertheless, lupin pro-

tein may be added to soya products without major

modifications to the end product. It is apparent that

investigation is still needed to develop a lupin-specific

technology and new genuine lupin products for

human nutrition.

The Potential of Lupin

0017 The world lupin seed productions is at present mainly

concentrated in Australia, which has produced 1.38

million tonnes in 1993 and around 2 million tonnes in

the year 2000. This represents 2–4% of the world

pulse production. Other lupin producers are the

countries of the former USSR, Poland and Germany

in Europe, Chile, Bolivia, and Peru in South America,

and also South Africa. However, the lupin seed shows

a real potential for the grain world market due to its

nutritional and agricultural properties. The high al-

kaloid content that used to be one of the major limi-

tations for a wider application of the lupin seed has

been gradually overcome by the introduction of

commercial sweet varieties, mainly of L. albus and

L. angustifolius. Although a new sweet variety of

L. mutabilis is already available, work is still needed

to establish a productive line with increased seed size

and protein content. Besides the improvement in

lupin nutritional qualities, research in specific areas

such as plant breeding and biotechnology, crop pro-

tection and food lupin technology are vital for lupin

to gain a stronger foothold in the international

market, with a substantial increase in Europe and

South America production. To consolidate this status,

an appropriate international price policy together

with a strong marketing strategy is mandatory. (See

Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance.)

See also: Alkaloids: Properties and Determination;

Allergens; Carbohydrates: Classification and

Properties; Dietary Fiber: Properties and Sources;

Essential Fatty Acids; Fatty Acids: Properties; Food

Intolerance: Food Allergies; Peanuts; Phenolic

Compounds; Phosphorus: Properties and

Determination; Phytic Acid: Properties and

Determination; Plant Antinutritional Factors:

Characteristics; Protein: Food Sources; Saponins;

Trypsin Inhibitors

Further Reading

Cowling WA, Buirchel BJ and Tapia ME (1998) Lupin.

Lupinus L. Promoting the Conservation and Use of

Underutilized and Neglected Crops. 23. Rome: Institute

of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Genetic Research,

Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources

Institute.

DuPont MS, Muzquiz M, Estrella I, Fenwick GR and Price

KR (1994) Relationship between the sensory properties

of lupin seed with alkaloid and tannin content. Journal

of the Science of Food and Agriculture 65: 95–100.

Fletwood JG and Hudson BJF (1982) Lupinseed – anew

source of edible oil. Journal of Food Technology 17: 11–17.

Franski R, Bednarek P, Wojtaszek P and Stobiecki M (1999)

Identification of flavonoid diglycosides in yellow lupin

with mass spectrometric techniques. Journal of Mass

Spectrometry 34: 486–495.

Gladstones JS, Atkins CA and Hamblin J (eds) (1998)

Lupins as Crop Plants: Biology, Production and Utiliza-

tion. USA: Oxford University Press.

3628 LUPIN

Gross R (1982) El Cultivo y la Utilization del Tarwi. Estudio

FAO, No. 36. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Hill GD (1977) The composition and nutritive value of

lupin seed. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, B: Live-

stock Feeds and Feeding 47: 511–529.

Trugo LC, Farah A and Trugo NMF (1993) Germination

and debittering of lupin seeds reduce a-galactosides and

intestinal carbohydrate fermentation in humans. Journal

of Food Science 58: 627–630.

von Baer E (1994) Lupin development policy in South

America. In: Neves Martins JM and Beira

o da Costa

ML (eds) Advances in Lupin Research, pp. 577–580.

Lisbon: ISA Press.

van Barneveld RJ (1999) Understanding the nutritional

chemistry of lupin seed to improve livestock production

efficiency. Nutrition Research Reviews 12: 203–230.

Lychees See Fruits of Tropical Climates: Commercial and Dietary Importance; Fruits of the Sapindaceae;

Fruits of the Sapotaceae; Lesser-known Fruits of Africa; Fruits of Central and South America; Lesser-known Fruits

of Asia

LUPIN 3629

Mackerel See Fish: Introduction; Catching and Handling; Fish as Food; Demersal Species of Temperate

Climates; Pelagic Species of Temperate Climates; Tuna and Tuna-like Fish of Tropical Climates; Demersal Species

of Tropical Climates; Pelagic Species of Tropical Climates; Important Elasmobranch Species; Processing;

Miscellaneous Fish Products; Spoilage of Seafood; Dietary Importance of Fish and Shellfish; Fish Farming; Fish

Meal

MACROBIOTIC DIETS

J Dwyer, Jean Mayer US Department of Agriculture,

Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts

University, Boston, MA, USA

Definition

0001 Macrobiotics is a philosophical system that was

founded by a Japanese named Georges Ohsawa and

popularized in the USA by Mishio Kushi. Macrobiotics

advocates a diet that is virtually devoid of animal foods

because of the belief that foods biologically far away

from humans are better for them, and that these foods

should form the basis of the diet to prolong life and

health. Animal foods, if they are used at all, are used in

very small amounts as condiments rather than in main

course portions. Ohsawa believed that all disease

could be cured by a proper therapy that consisted of

balancing the forces of Yin and Yang. The optimal

macrobiotic diet is viewed by practitioners as one

that balances Yin and Yang foods, as defined by their

activity characteristics in the universe, supposedly op-

posing and complementing each other. This dualistic

Yin–Yang classification does not correspond to food

grouping systems based on nutrient composition. Ex-

tensive chewing of food is recommended to enhance

the strengthening Yang properties of the diet. It is

important to recognize that macrobiotics is a life view

and philosophy that involves far more than diet alone.

The philosophy views disease as resulting from Yin–

Yang imbalances that can be restored by an ideal diet.

History

0002 In the 1960s and early 1970s, an extreme form of the

macrobiotic diet, the Zen macrobiotic diet, gained

some popularity. The final stage of an elaborate

10-stage dietary regimen consisted of brown rice,

salt, and fluids such as herbal teas, and was viewed

as bringing not only health but also spiritual enlight-

enment. Michio Kushi revised the Ohsawa diet and

emphasized less extreme patterns in the 1970s. The

macrobiotic diet, as currently practiced, although it

may have nutritional deficiencies, is less restrictive.

Nevertheless, for individuals who are ill, especially

with diseases such as cancers of the gastrointestinal

tract, such a high bulk diet may cause, rather than

alleviate, symptoms. Macrobiotic leaders often com-

plain that there is a bias in the scientific literature

against macrobiotics. However, evidence that the

macrobiotic diet has a place in the treatment of

cancers is not available. Moreover, the proponents

of macrobiotic diets claim that the negative health

effects that were associated with the diet in the past

are no longer present. However, population-based

studies are available that indicate ill effects in infants

and young children, and similar studies refuting them

are not available, testifying that this is no longer the

case. This is surprising, since several individuals

trained at the doctoral level in nutritional sciences

are adherents to these regimens.

Composition of Diet

0003The macrobiotic diet is similar nutritionally to a

vegan–vegetarian regime with additional prohibitions

against sugar, alcohol, and processed foods. Most

of the energy comes from cereal staples, including

rice, soy, and aduke and other beans. This basic

diet is supplemented by soybeans, vegetables, some

fruits, nuts, seeds, and very small amounts of fish.

The diets prescribed in writings by the various author-

ities and that are actually eaten probably vary a good

deal from eater to eater, however. (See Vegetarian

Diets.)

0004 Dietary planning and menu selection are based on

combinations of foods that are thought to be philo-

sophically appropriate according to macrobiotic

criteria but may not be so from the nutritional stand-

point. Certain food groups, such as dairy and meats,

are avoided. Milk and milk products are major

sources in American diets of calcium, phosphorus,

magnesium, vitamin D, riboflavin, and high-quality

protein. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and beans are good

sources of high-quality protein, ion, zinc, copper, and

many of the B-complex vitamins. Without careful

planning, when these food groups are avoided, it is

difficult to meet recommended levels of energy, vita-

mins B

and D, iron, calcium, zinc, and riboflavin.

Dietary deficiencies result when appropriate substitu-

tions of other foods rich in these nutrients are not

made. The extent to which dietary deficiencies arise

varies by life stage, type of diet adopted, and the

eater’s health status.

Lifestyles of Macrobiotic Practitioners

0005 Macrobiotic beliefs affect ways of living that influ-

ence health and go beyond diet. Macrobiotics practi-

tioners have some lifestyle habits that promote

health, such as abstinence or moderation in the use

of alcohol, nonuse of illicit drugs, and a physically

active life with adequate rest. However, some macro-

biotics smoke, and others eschew anticipatory

guidance from conventional health professionals,

avoid or delay the use of preventive measures such as

immunizations, and refuse to use vitamin mineral sup-

plements and prescription drugs. Some delay seeking

medical treatment for some illnesses until they are

quite ill, thus increasing the risks of secondary malnu-

trition. These attitudes are at variance with vegetar-

ians of other types. (See Malnutrition: Malnutrition in

Developed Countries; Vegetarian Diets.)

Health Effects of Macrobiotic Diets over

the Life Cycle

0006 Acceptable and appropriate diets must fulfill the diet-

ary reference intakes and the recommendations of

other expert groups on dietary balance, variety, and

moderation. Finally, they must be developmentally

appropriate. Table 1 presents a summary of the risks

and benefits of macrobiotic diets. Generally, macro-

biotics breast-feed their children through the first

year of life and introduce some complementary feed-

ing after 6 months. However, macrobiotic diets are

very bulky for weanlings. In addition, a source of

vitamin D should be provided after 6 months of age.

It is difficult to make the diet nutritionally adequate

and follow the pronouncements of macrobiotic

leaders. Use of at least 20–25 g of dietary fat, and at

least 100–150 g of fatty fishes, which are good

sources of vitamin D and also provide some vitamin

, improve the diets of weanlings in more favorable

directions. At least 150–250 g of milk and milk prod-

ucts per day are advised to assure adequate intakes of

calcium in early childhood. Alternatively, soy milk

that is fortified with vitamins B

and D and calcium,

highly fortified cereals, or vitamin mineral supple-

ments may be used as sources of nutrients rich in

the milk group. During later infancy and weaning,

iron intakes may also be unsatisfactory, and iron-

deficiency anemia may result. Iron-fortified cereals,

plant foods high in iron such as iron-fortified soy

formula, and iron-fortified cereals eaten with ascor-

bic acid-rich foods enhance iron bioavailabiliy and

decrease the risks of iron-deficiency anemia. The

macrobiotic diet also increases the risks of dietary

deficiencies at other times of life when nutrient

needs are particularly high. Similar adaptations of

the diet to increase intakes of essential nutrients are

also prudent during pregnancy and lactation, at

adolescence, and during recovery from illness. During

pregnancy, vegan-vegetarians and some macrobiotics

who eat virtually no animal foods at all may have

very low stores of DHA and EPA, and of vitamin B

Weight gain during pregnancy may not be satisfactory

either, increasing the risks of low birth weight.

0007During the past 25 years, adherents to the macro-

biotic philosophy have had a higher prevalence of

dietary deficiency disease than other vegetarians.

The reasons for this are probably several, and include

the restrictions on consumption and sources of nutri-

ents (prohibitions against vitamin mineral supple-

ments and fortified foods, other processed foods)

over and above those involving a vegan diet, attitudes

toward health and use of conventional medical care,

and the difficulties of fitting recommendations based

on philosophical considerations with nutrient intakes

based on modern knowledge of nutrition.

0008Most of the positive aspects of macrobiotic diets

associated with health benefits are because they are

not excessive. Among them are modest caloric intakes,

very low intakes of saturated fat, cholesterol, alcohol,

and caffeine, relatively low intakes of refined carbo-

hydrates, and high intakes of dietary fiber. The health

advantages associated with the macrobiotic diet

are due only in part to dietary composition. Other

positive lifestyle characteristics of the macrobiotic

lifestyle are also health-promoting. Macrobiotics

generally are lean rather than obese, tend to eschew

alcohol and illicit drugs, and lead orderly lives. The

macrobiotic dietary pattern provides no unique

3632 MACROBIOTIC DIETS

health advantages over those accruing to other vege-

tarian or vegan patterns, however.

0009 Environmental factors are the major reasons why

the nutritional status of macrobiotics differs from that

of other vegetarians or omnivores. However, macro-

biotics are not exempt from genetic disorders that

require nutritional treatment either, such as vitamin

D-dependent rickets, or polymorphisms in the vitamin

D receptor that are associated with differences in bone

mineral density and perhaps calcium absorption.

They are also affected by more subtle variations in

genetic endowment that contribute to the variability

in nutrient requirements. For example, a genetic

polymorphism has been found that adversely affects

homocysteine concentrations in individuals with a

relatively poor float status. Macrobiotics with such

polymorphisms may be the individuals who fall ill first

when diets are inadequate (See Table 1).

Nutritional Value of Macrobiotic Diets

Energy

0010Macrobiotics urges moderation in consumption. The

regimen is low in fat, high in bulk, and high in fiber,

and thus it tends to be low in energy. Macrobiotic

practitioners are usually lean, in part because their

energy intakes are low and in part because they lead

physically active lives. Some malabsorption may

occur. The risks of low energy intakes are most evi-

dent among macrobiotic infants who are not breast-

fed weanlings, and young children. The practice of

feeding a very-low-fat-cereal-based infant food to

infants, called ‘kohkoh’, is no longer common; it

was associated with frank protein calorie malnutri-

tion in many infants. Macrobiotic children are

usually smaller, lighter, and leaner than their peers.

Some catch-up growth usually occurs in the preschool

tbl0001 Table 1 Risks and benefits of macrobiotic diets

Infancy

< 6months

Infancy

> 6months

Weaning Preschool School Adolescent Adult Pregnancy Lactation Illness

Risks

Emaciation, protein-calorie

malnutrition



Slowed growth  

Low stores/intakes of DHA,

EPA

 

Iron-deficiency anemia  

Anemia due to vitamin B

deficiency



Low intakes of folic acid 

Vitamin D deficiency rickets 

Osteomalacia 

Low dietary calcium intake  

Low intakes of zinc, B



Benefits

Long lactation and breast-

feeding

 

Decreased obesity   

Decreased alcohol abuse    

Low serum lipids  

Low blood pressure  

Good laxation 

Decreased incidence of type 2

diabetes

 

Decreased incidence of

diverticular disease

 

Decreased incidence colon

cancer



Decreased incidence of

breast and prostate cancer



Decreased incidence of

endometrial cancer



Decreased incidence of

cervical cancer

MACROBIOTIC DIETS 3633