Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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(Table 8). It includes the description of remaining

particles and any residual coating. The essential com-

ponents of the qualitative description of texture are

the same for all meats from different species.

0036 Flavor Flavor refers to the taste and olfactory prop-

erties that are perceived by the gustatory receptors of

tongue and the olfactory mucous membrane in the

nasal cavity. The four basic tastes of sweet, salty, acid,

and bitter can be found at low to moderate intensities

in the various muscle foods. Sweet and salty have

naturally low intensities in fresh meat but can be

more intense in cured meats. Astringent and metallic

perceptions, which result from the presence of metal

ions, are two mouth feel descriptors commonly found

in meats. Umami is another taste common to meats; it

is given by the presence of monosodium glutamate

and nucleotides.

0037 Meat flavor has been shown to be affected by

several ante-mortem (age, sex, species, nutritional

status, stress level, muscle type, fat level and compos-

ition) and post-mortem (slaughter, carcass handing,

aging, cooking, and storage after cooking) factors.

Animal age is an important factor; flavor intensity is

higher in meats from older animals. Meat contains

nonvolatile flavor precursors such as lipids, fatty

acids, sugars, organic acids, nucleotides, peptides,

vitamins, and volatile components such as products

of reactions of oxidation. The flavor of cooked meat

is developed by the application of heat that induces

Maillard reactions and the degradation of lipids.

The Maillard reaction products are formed by reac-

tions between sugars and amino acids or peptides.

Heterocyclic compounds produced by the Mail-

lard reaction, especially those containing sulfur, are

important and provide meaty, roast, and boiled

aroma. Most cooked meats have characteristics

brothy, browned, and meat flavor. The accurate de-

termination of flavor is cumbersome because of the

multitude of sensory terms and has not been fully

elucidated.

0038The flavor characteristics of meat from different

species are listed in Table 9. The lipid fraction prob-

ably contains the specific odorant tracers of each

species, while the aqueous fraction holds the common

nonvolatile meat taste. The main beef flavor attri-

butes developed are the serum/bloody aroma associ-

ated with raw beef lean, the brothy/meaty aroma

associated with cooked lean meat, the aroma associ-

ated with cooked beef fat, and the browned aroma

associated with the outside of grilled or broiled beef.

The beef flavor note is due to the presence of many

compounds: methyl-branched aldehydes, ketones,

nitrogenated heterocycles, and other compounds.

Lamb exhibits the strongest and the most variable

flavor: animal, cabbage, rancid odor, and meaty

flavors. The branched fatty acids (4-methyloctanoic

and 4-ethyloctanoic acids) are found in abundant

quantities in lamb fat and are responsible for the

mutton flavor. Abnormal flavors androstenone (boar

taints) or other metabolites (skatole) contained in the

fatty tissue of male pigs. Cured pork meats have more

aroma than fresh meat. The fermentation process

used in dry sausage with bacterial starters or the

drying process of dry-cured ham leads to the forma-

tion of flavor such as buttery, vinegar, nutty, and

cheese aroma. Poultry skin contains fat and sulfur

compounds responsible for the characteristic chicken

aroma. Moreover, inosinic acid, inosine, and guanylic

acid may also react with other components of meat

tbl0009 Table 9 Flavor attributes for various species of meat

Beef Lamb Pork Poultry

Cooked beef lean Gamey/muttony Porky Boiled chicken

Brothy/meaty Fatty Sex taint/boar odor Meaty

Cooked beef fat Bloody/serum Fatty Brothy

Serum/bloody Browned/caramel Bloody Browned

Browned Livery/organ meat Browned Liver/organ-like

Grainy/cow-like Meaty

Livery/organ meat Sheep meat

Boiled meat

Poultry

Animal

Rancid

Oily

Buttery

Cabbage

Roast

Rubbery

Sources: Bett KB (1993) Measuring sensory properties of meat in the laboratory. Food Technology 47: 121–127. Rousset S, Young OA and Berdague JL

(1997) Diet and growth effects in panel assessment of sheepmeat odour and flavour. Meat Science 45(2): 169–181.

3784 MEAT/Eating Quality

during the Maillard reaction and add complexity to

the chicken flavor.

Conclusion

0039 Good manufacturing practices, developed in the

past 20 years, have introduced new hygienic rules

that limit contamination by pathogenic and spoilage

bacteria. Consumers are more aware of the quality and

storage of meat and of the safety measures taken

during its preparation. Consumer preferences are con-

sidered by the food industry in order to provide meat

products with the desired sensory and nutritional

qualities. However, several criteria other than eating

quality play an important role in meat acceptability,

e.g., price of meat, attitudes and knowledge of con-

sumers towards meat, and convenience in preparing

meat. Multidisciplinary studies should be useful in

understanding the complexity of eating behavior.

See also: Aeromonas; Clostridium: Botulism;

Escherichia coli: Food Poisoning; Listeria: Listeriosis;

Meat: Hygiene; Salmonella: Salmonellosis; Sensory

Evaluation: Texture; Taste; Spoilage: Molds in Spoilage

Further Reading

AFNOR (2000) Sensory Analysis – Methodology – General

Guidance for Conducting Hedonic Tests in Sensory

Analysis Laboratory or in Controlled Conditions

Room Involving Consumers. XP V09-500.

AMSA (1995) Research Guidelines for Cookery, Sensory

Evaluation and Instrumental Tenderness Measurements

of Fresh Meat. Chicago, IL: National Live Stock and

Meat Board.

Bett KB (1993) Measuring sensory properties of meat in the

laboratory. Food Technology 47: 121–127.

Chambers E IV and Bowers JR (1993) Consumer perception

of sensory qualities in muscle foods. Food Technology

47: 116–120.

Civille GV and Lyon BG (1996) Aroma and Flavor Lexicon

for Sensory Evaluation Terms, Definitions, References

and Examples. ASTM Data Series Publication DS 66.

ICMSF (1996) International Commission on Microbio-

logical Specifications for Foods, Microorganisms in

Foods 5. Characteristics of Microbial Pathogens.

London: Blackie Academic & Professional.

Mottram DS (1998) Flavour formation in meat and meat

products: a review. Food Chemistry 62: 415–424.

Moskowitz H and Krieger B (1993) What sensory charac-

teristics drive product quality? An assessment of individ-

ual differences. Journal of Sensory Studies 8: 271–282.

Rousset S, Martin JF, Bayle MC and Touraille C (1996)

Cross-cultural Studies on Food Preference and Con-

sumer Behaviour, AIR-CAT Measurements of Consumer

Attitudes and their Influence on Food Choice and

Acceptability, Lillehammer, February 3–6.

Rousset S, Young OA and Berdague JL (1997) Diet and

growth effects in panel assessment of sheepmeat odour

and flavour. Meat Science 45(2): 169–181.

WHO (1997) World Health Organization, World Health

Statistics Quarterly, 50, 154, no. 1/2. Geneva: World

Health Organization.

Young OA, Berdague

JL, Viallon C, Rousset S and Terriez

M (1997) Fat-borne volatiles and sheepmeat odour.

Meat Science 45(2): 183–200.

Sausages and Comminuted

Products

J G Sebranek, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA

General Information

0001Sausages and comminuted (ground, chopped, or

otherwise subdivided) meats are processed-meat

products which offer consumers a wide range of al-

ternatives to the standard fare of steaks, chops, and

roasts. These products not only offer meat with dif-

ferent flavors and textures but also allow processors

to improve the keepability and safety of meat prod-

ucts. Spices and other ingredients are used to create

unique flavors while processes such as curing and

drying improve product color and textural properties.

The use of ingredients, such as salt and nitrite, and

processes, such as cooking, together serve to kill

microorganisms and consequently improve keepabil-

ity and safety of sausage products.

0002Comminuted meats can be as simple as ground

beef, an immensely popular consumer product, or as

complex as fermented, smoked, dried hard salami.

The flavor, color, texture, and storage stability of

ground beef compared with hard salami provide a

good example of the extremes which can be achieved

with this group of food products. Ground beef is an

inexpensive product, popular by itself but also fre-

quently used in combination with other ingredients

(vegetables, mushrooms, cheese, pasta, etc.) to in-

crease menu flexibility and eating variety. The hard

salami, in contrast, is a relatively expensive, gourmet

product that provides a unique gustatory experience

by itself. Sausage products also offer consumers a

high degree of convenience since many are cooked

and may be eaten cold or simply reheated using a

microwave. There is little or no waste from these

products.

0003Sausages and comminuted meats are good examples

of ‘value-added’ processing by the food industry

whereby relatively low-value meat cuts and

MEAT/Sausages and Comminuted Products 3785

trimmings are dramatically improved for eating en-

joyment. Chopping and grinding, for example, can

greatly improve the tenderness of tough meat cuts;

spices, smoking, and cooking can create unique

textures, flavors, and aromas which increase eating

pleasure. Each processing step can be achieved in a

number of different ways (different comminution

methods, spice blends, smoking and cooking pro-

cesses, etc.) which means there are hundreds of var-

ieties of sausages and comminuted meats available. In

addition, the meat industry is constantly striving to

create new products in order to remain competitive

with the rest of the food industry. This means that

consumers can expect to see more new varieties of

sausages and comminuted products in the future.

0004 The preparation and processing of sausage prod-

ucts was once considered exclusively an art, with

secrets handed down through generations of sausage

makers. However, scientific research in the twentieth

century has provided the understanding necessary to

make this field a sophisticated science.

Historical Background

0005 Sausage products are believed to have been developed

well before written history. The word ‘sausage’ has

been described as originating from the Latin word

salsus, which means salted. This would imply that

sausage processing, in the form of adding salt to

meat, existed at least several hundred years bc.

0006 It is likely that most sausage-processing techniques

were discovered by accident. People who used salt for

flavoring purposes eventually noticed that salted meat

did not spoil as quickly as unsalted meat. Likewise,

smoking was probably discovered as a side-effect of

cooking over an open fire, and drying for preservation

may have resulted from observing meat exposed to the

sun during warm, dry days. The discovery of spices

resulted in a tremendous increase in meat product

variety as people experimented with different spice

combinations and blends. The need for convenience

in handling led to the use of sausage casings derived

from the gastrointestinal tract of animals slaughtered

for meat. Thus, allied industries developed to supply

meat processors with spices, casings, and equipment

necessary to manufacture sausage products.

0007 The development of cured sausage probably origin-

ated with salt-preserved meat where the salt used

contained saltpeter. Saltpeter (potassium nitrate) is a

relatively common contaminant in crude salt which

will result in a unique pink-red cured color when used

in meat. Additional effects from saltpeter include a

marked resistance to spoilage. Such observations

would have greatly encouraged use of this com-

pound for cured meat processing. By the late 1800s,

scientific studies had shown that the nitrate ion from

saltpeter was the source of meat-curing reactions and,

by the 1920s, scientists determined that nitrite rather

than nitrate was the active curing agent. Conse-

quently, direct addition of sodium nitrite is the most

common means today of producing cured meats.

Cured products include not only many sausages and

comminuted meats but also intact muscle products

such as hams, bacon, and corned beef.

0008Many of the sausage products common in the USA

can be traced to their origins in Europe and other

parts of the world. In most cases, the type of product

is related to environmental conditions within the geo-

graphical region in which they originated. Dry saus-

age, for example, was largely developed in southern

Europe where such products are unlikely to spoil in

the warm climate. On the other hand, northern

Europe gave rise to cooked sausage where a cold

climate permitted longer storage. It has been sug-

gested that the development of highly spiced foods,

often typical of warm climates, was encouraged by

the ability of spices to prevent and mask off-flavors

which are likely to develop at warm temperatures.

Many meat products also have names which suggest

origin from a specific region or city; examples include

Frankfurt (frankfurters) and Bologna (bologna). The

development of mechanical refrigeration, modern

packaging, and rapid transportation systems has

allowed widespread distribution of traditional saus-

age products all over the world.

Classification of Sausages and

Comminuted Meats

0009Because sausages and comminuted meats are charac-

terized both by processing procedures and by ingredi-

ents used, classification of these products largely

reflects their processing history. Of course, this also

means that classification becomes somewhat arbi-

trary in cases where several processing techniques

may be combined to produce a specific product.

Nevertheless, most sausages and comminuted meats

can be placed in one of seven general classes (Table 1).

0010Close review of Table 1 shows that products can

be distinguished by five fundamental treatments:

seasoning, cooking, curing, smoking, and drying. For

example, fresh comminuted meats such as ground beef

or restructured nuggets are not cured (do not contain

nitrite), usually contain little seasoning, and are not

smoked. While ‘fresh’ may be defined as ‘raw, un-

cooked’ meat, it is more specifically understood in

the sausage industry to mean ‘uncured.’ This category

of products is becoming increasingly popular as

cooked products ready for quick reheating. This popu-

larity has been facilitated by use of batters, breadings,

3786 MEAT/Sausages and Comminuted Products

and other coatings which add new flavors, improve

mouth feel, and increase retention of meat flavor and

juiciness in these products. Fresh sausage, in contrast

to fresh comminuted meats, is well-seasoned with salt

and spices and is usually stuffed into casings or formed

into patties. Uncooked, smoked sausage, which is rela-

tively uncommon in the USA, is smoked for flavor

enhancement but remains uncooked.

0011 Cooked and smoked sausage makes up by far the

largest sausage category in the USA and is typically

cured, seasoned, smoked, and fully cooked. Because

these products are considered ready-to-eat (RTE),

they are very convenient and easy to use. This group

makes up about 40% of all sausage products in the

US, with the most common being frankfurters and

bologna. The cooked-sausage category includes prod-

ucts which may be cured or uncured but will usually

be stuffed into a cylindrical casing. Because smoke is

not usually applied to these products, cooking, when

done, is often carried out in hot water instead of hot

air, as is typically done for combined smoking/

cooking processes. Cooked loaves and luncheon

meats is a category of processed meats which includes

extensive use of unique nonmeat ingredients such as

pickles, pimientos, cheese, olives, honey, and corn

meal. These nonmeat ingredients offer a tremendous

variety of flavors and appearance characteristics for

these products. The dry and semidry sausages may

be the most distinctive group of processed meats

because, in addition to curing, seasoning, and stuffing

into a casing, these products are usually fermented

with a microbial culture to acidify the product and

facilitate subsequent drying. Semidry products such

as summer sausage are not further dried and are ready

for distribution after fermentation and cooking. With

an appropriate pH (acidity) from fermentation, and

adequate vacuum packaging, these products will be

shelf-stable and may not require refrigeration. Dry

sausage, such as pepperoni, is dried after the fermen-

tation/cooking process to reach a characteristic

moisture:protein (M:P) ratio as required by regula-

tion. In the USA, for example, the required M:P ratio

for pepperoni is 1.6:1 or less; for Genoa salami, it is

2.3:1, and for beef jerky, it is 0.75:1. For comparison,

fresh meat has an M:P ratio of about 3.7:1. The

overall result of drying processes for dry and semidry

sausage is a product with distinctive flavor, unique

texture, and very high resistance to spoilage. The high

resistance to microbial growth and spoilage which

characterizes this category of sausage products also

contributes to improved product safety.

Ingredients Used for Sausages and

Comminuted Meats

0012The ingredients chosen to manufacture sausages and

comminuted meats not only determine product iden-

tity but are also critical to the quality of the finished

tbl0001 Table 1 Classification of sausages and comminuted meats

Product group Examples General characteristics

Fresh comminuted meats Ground beef Uncured, typically uncooked and unseasoned but may

include limited seasoning and/or binders; nuggets

and restructured products may also be coated with

batter or breading. Increasingly, this category of

products is found as fully cooked and ready for

microwave reheating

Ground pork

Ground poultry

Nuggets

Restructured patties,

steaks, chops

Fresh sausage Pork sausage Uncured, well-seasoned with salt and spices, usually stuffed into

casings but not smoked or cooked; may be found as patties or

in bulk quantities besides the traditional sausage links

Bratwurst

Italian sausage

Uncooked, smoked sausage Kielbasa Cured or uncured, seasoned, stuffed into casings and cold-

smoked; must be fully cooked before servingMettwurst

Cooked, smoked sausage Frankfurters Cured, seasoned, stuffed into casings, smoked and fully cooked;

may be served cold or reheated. Casings are usually removed

prior to sale

Bologna

Cooked sausage Braunschweiger Cured or uncured, seasoned, stuffed into casings and cooked;

may or may not include smoke flavoringsLiver sausage

Cooked luncheon meats and loaves Pickle and pimiento loaf Cured or uncured, seasoned, cooked, not smoked. Products in

this category show wide variety of nonmeat (cheese, olives,

pickles, honey, etc.) ingredient use

Ham and cheese loaf

Sandwich spread

Scrapple

Dry and semidry sausage Pepperoni Cured, seasoned, stuffed into casings; usually fermented; usually

smoked and cooked. Controlled air-drying utilized for dry

sausage, with most products characterized by final moisture-

to-protein ratio

Hard salami

Summer sausage

Lebanon bologna

MEAT/Sausages and Comminuted Products 3787

product. Ingredients include both meat ingredients

and nonmeat ingredients, both of which play a major

role in creating product identity and eating quality.

Meat Ingredients

0013 The selection of meat ingredients to be used for

manufacturing sausages and comminuted meats is

one of the first, and most important, decisions made

by meat processors. The first requirement is that the

meat be of high quality and as fresh as possible. It is

sometimes assumed that meat quality is not critical to

final product quality because spices and other ingre-

dients will overwhelm and mask small quality differ-

ences in meat ingredients. It has been clearly shown

by research, however, that the subtle chemical changes

which occur in meat before processing, such as the

beginning of lipid oxidation, can have major effects

on finished product quality.

0014 The second requirement for meat ingredients to be

used for sausages and comminuted meats is informa-

tion on composition and color of each ingredient. The

various meat ingredients available are highly variable

in color, composition, and ability to retain moisture

and fat when cooked. Consequently, sausage proces-

sors must choose and combine meat ingredients in the

proportions that will create the finished product qual-

ities desired. The meat ingredients are not only the

source of the fat, water, and protein content of the

finished product, but also affect the texture, juiciness,

flavor, and appearance of the product. When the

desired product qualities have been achieved, it

becomes important to reproduce the same product

consistently every time it is manufactured.

0015 The differences in meat ingredients are the basis for

the use of least-cost computer formulations by the

meat industry. For these computerized calculations,

all meat ingredients are first chemically analyzed for

input data to be used in the program. The computer

program then determines the proportions of each

ingredient needed to achieve the desired product char-

acteristics at the lowest possible cost. Because there

are dozens of different meat ingredients available and

each will vary from day to day, computerized least-

cost formulation programs are very useful. An add-

itional advantage to cost control, however, is the

improvement in product consistency and uniformity

that is achieved at the same time.

Nonmeat Ingredients

0016 After selecting the meat ingredients, a sausage manu-

facturer is faced with decisions on nonmeat ingredi-

ents. Many of the nonmeat ingredients are essential to

product characteristics; salt for most sausages is one

such example and the only decision to be made con-

cerns the amount of salt to be used. Other nonmeat

ingredients such as spices offer the opportunity to

create unique products by using different blends and

combinations.

0017Table 2 includes the most important nonmeat

ingredients with the major functions and typical use

levels of each. In many cases, nonmeat ingredients are

restricted by regulations which may vary in different

countries of the world. When trying to determine the

limits of nonmeat ingredient use, it is important to

check the regulations appropriate to where the prod-

uct is being manufactured and/or sold. Awareness of

the specific functions of each nonmeat ingredient is

important because each contributes specific product

characteristics that often cannot be produced any

other way.

0018Salt, for example, is responsible for several differ-

ent characteristics essential to sausage products and is

much more than a simple flavoring ingredient. While

the flavor from salt is important, salt is even more

critical to microbial control (both for spoilage and

food safety), product texture, and binding of fat and

water. Because there has been concern about human

dietary sodium intake and the potential relationship

of sodium to hypertension, considerable research has

been conducted on the reduction of salt levels in

processed meats. While the research has shown that

salt can often be reduced to some degree, it has also

become clear that microbial problems and cooking

losses quickly increase as salt is reduced, especially

below 2%. Salt is also necessary for typical texture

and binding qualities of meat because the meat pro-

teins responsible for these characteristics are solubil-

ized by salt. The proteins must be at least partially

solubilized to be effective. Protein solubility and bind-

ing is one of the main reasons a small (0.5–1.0%)

amount of salt is used in restructured meats and

nuggets. Recent developments with enzyme technol-

ogy, such as the use of transglutaminase to achieve

meat protein cross-linking, may offer an alternative

to the use of salt for binding in restructured meats.

0019While salt is used for every sausage product and

most comminuted meats (except ground beef, pork,

lamb, or poultry), one ingredient that differentiates

product classes very clearly is sodium (or potassium)

nitrite, which separates cured and fresh products.

Nitrite is responsible for cured meat color and flavor,

as well as being a strong microbial inhibitor. Sodium

(or potassium) nitrate is often described as a curing

ingredient but is ineffective by itself. The only function

of nitrate in processed meats is to form nitrite which

then contributes all the cured meat characteristics.

The use of nitrite (and nitrate) is strictly regulated.

The most common limitation, and that which applies

in the USA, is a maximum of 156 mg sodium nitrite

per kilogram (156 p.p.m.) of meat. One exception to

3788 MEAT/Sausages and Comminuted Products

this is pumped bacon which is limited to 120 p.p.m.

Nitrite is a remarkable ingredient in that it performs

its functions at extremely low concentrations and no

other ingredient has been found that will produce the

same effects. Nitrite is also important because, in

addition to preventing spoilage, it is a highly effective

inhibitor of Clostridium botulinum, thus provid-

ing food safety assurance. Cured, cooked meat in

vacuum-sealed cans or packages, an environment

where C. botulinum is most likely to grow, is very

well protected against the likelihood of causing botu-

lism. Most modern curing processes also include

sodium ascorbate or erythorbate as accelerators to

speed up the nitrite curing reactions and facilitate

more rapid production systems. These two ingredients

differ only in that ascorbate is biologically active as

vitamin C while erythorbate is not. Both are equally

effective when used to accelerate meat curing reac-

tions. Interestingly, there is a persistent rumor which

circulates among consumers that erythorbate means

earthworms and products with erythorbate are to be

avoided. Because this unfounded rumor has persisted,

some meat-processing companies have begun indicat-

ing on product labels the true source of erythorbate,

that is, ‘made from sugar.’

0020Other multifunctional nonmeat ingredients include

the polyphosphates. These compounds, of which

there are several, interact strongly with salt for pro-

tein solubilization. Consequently, the phosphates are

major contributors to product texture and binding

characteristics. The importance of the phosphates

becomes more marked in meat products with reduced

tbl0002 Table 2 Nonmeat ingredients used for sausages and comminuted meats

Ingredient Function Level of use andapplications

Salt (sodium chloride) Flavoring, microbial inhibition, protein

solubilization (which controls fat and

water retention in cooking), product

texture, and product adhesion

0–5% in all sausages and many

comminuted meats

Dry sausage may be as high as 5%, other

sausages 1.5–2.5%, restructured

comminuted meats 0.5–1.0% and

ground beef 0%. There are no

regulatory limits

Sodium or potassium nitrite Curing agent responsible for cured color,

flavor, and microbial control,

particularly for Clostridium botulinum

Limited to 156 p.p.m. in most products.

Used in all cured meats. Maximum

levels established by regulation

Sodium ascorbate or erythorbate Accelerates the curing reaction of nitrite,

contributes antioxidant (protection from

off-flavor) function

Limited by regulation to 550 p.p.m. when

used

Usually included with nitrite in meat curing

Phosphates (sodium tripolyphosphates;

sodium polyphosphate, glassy;

tetrasodium pyrophosphate; sodium

hexametaphosphate)

Increase protein solubility (with related fat

and water binding) and product

adhesion, increase meat pH, chelate

metal ions that encourage rancidity,

contribute to microbial inhibition

0.2–0.5% in both cured and fresh products

Maximum level of 0.5% is controlled by

regulation

Sweeteners (sucrose, dextrose, lactose,

corn syrups, sorbitol)

Provide sweetness, improve water

retention, substrate for fermentation

Usually used at 0.5–1.0%. Sucrose and

dextrose are unlimited but corn syrups

and sorbitol are restricted to 2.0% by

regulation

Starter cultures Produce lactic acid from sugars and lower

product pH

Limited to 0.5% (with water) for fermented

sausage

Binders and extenders (milk proteins,

soy proteins, cereal products,

starches, carrageenans,

hydrocolliods)

Improve water binding, product slicing,

cooking yields, reduce product costs

May be used in any product. Generally

limited (in USA) to 3.5% except soy

isolate (2%), with some exceptions

Antioxidants (BHA, BHT, TBHQ, propyl

gallate) and synergists (citric acid,

sodium citrate, monoisopropyl citrate,

monoglyceride citrate)

Inhibit rancid flavors; synergists are used

to chelate metal catalysts, making the

antioxidants more effective

Used in fresh sausage and dry sausage.

Limited by regulations (in USA) to 0.01%

of the fat in fresh sausage (0.02% in

combination) and to 0.003% of product

weight in dry sausage (0.006% in

combination)

Antimicrobial agents (sodium or

potassium lactate, sodium diacetate,

potassium benzoate, potassium

sorbate, microbial fermentation

products such as pediocins)

Inhibit microbial growth, especially

pathogenic bacteria

Limited by regulation with amounts

ranging from 0.1 to 3.5% depending on

product and specific use

BHA, butylated hydroxyanisole; BHT, butylated hydroxy toluene; TBHQ, tertiary butylhydroquinone.

MEAT/Sausages and Comminuted Products 3789

salt content and, in practice, one of the roles of phos-

phates is to permit lower concentrations of salt to be

used. Restructured, comminuted meat products and

nuggets which usually contain only 0.5–1.0% salt

depend greatly on the presence of phosphates to

achieve protein solubility and binding. Most of the

approved phosphates are good chelating agents and

will bind (chelate) contaminants such as metal ions

which commonly initiate rancid flavor production.

Thus, phosphates also function as flavor protectors.

0021 Spices are ingredients traditionally used for

flavoring of sausage products. More recently, spices

have been found to have other important functions as

well. For example, pepper, ginger, cloves, sage, and

rosemary are effective antioxidants and serve to pro-

tect product flavor. Other spices have been noted to

contribute to inhibitory effects on bacterial growth.

However, because spices are dried plant products,

they are often a source of microbial contamination

which can be a significant problem in processed meats.

Spices are usually treated with ethylene oxide or

irradiation to reduce the microbial contamination.

Spice extractives or liquid spices may also be used to

avoid the microbial problem. Flavoring agents such

as nucleotides, monosodium glutamate, and hydro-

lyzed proteins are sometimes used to increase meat

and/or spice flavor intensity.

0022 Sweeteners, which are most often sugars, might

also be considered flavoring agents but, in addition

to contributing sweetness, these ingredients also help

bind water because they are hygroscopic. Sucrose or

cane sugar may be used but dextrose or corn sugar is

more common. Dextrose is also utilized for fermented

sausage as the carbohydrate of choice for fermenta-

tion. The amount of lactic acid produced by the

fermentation and the product tanginess it produces

can be controlled by the amounts of dextrose used.

Dextrose is also well-recognized as a reducing sugar

which will result in caramel-colored surfaces when

heated in the presence of protein, a color desired for

some meat products.

0023 Starter cultures are another nonmeat ingredient

developed for use in fermented sausage. The use of

starter cultures has given fermented sausage proces-

sors immensely improved control over fermentation

processes. By using pure strains of desired bacteria,

processors have avoided many of the problems which

were caused by ‘wild’ cultures inherent to the meat

ingredients used. There are several types of bacteria

used for sausage starter cultures, with specific strains

of Pediococcus, Lactobacillus,andMicrococcus

being most common in the USA. In addition to lactic

acid, starter cultures may also produce a variety of

other fermentation end products, some of which con-

tribute to flavor. Thus, the specific culture used may

create a unique flavor and product as a result of the

fermentation process.

0024A wide variety of extenders or binders may be used

to improve water and fat retention, slicing or cooking

yields of processed meats. These compounds differ

greatly and range from milk and plant proteins to

starches and hydrocolloids. This category of nonmeat

ingredients is closely regulated, with limits for most

being 3.5% or less.

0025A unique group of nonmeat ingredients permitted

only in fresh sausage or dry sausage is the anti-

oxidants and synergists. These compounds are used

to retard the development of rancidity and thus pro-

tect flavor. Included are butylated hydroxyanisole

(BHA), butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), tertiary

butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), and propyl gallate.

These compounds are frequently used in combin-

ations to gain improved effectiveness. While very ef-

fective in meat systems, these antioxidants are

considered synthetics and are not normally found in

meat products unless they are added. Some questions

have been raised concerning the use of these antioxi-

dants and natural antioxidants have been sought as

alternatives. Most natural antioxidants have been

found to be less effective, though some show enough

antioxidant activity to be useful. One such compound

is rosemary extract, which has significant antioxidant

activity and is widely accepted because it is derived

from the spice.

Sausages and Comminuted Meats in the

Human Diet

0026Consumers are sometimes critical of the dietary value

of sausages and comminuted meats despite the fact

that these products provide high-quality protein, B

vitamins, and several minerals such as iron. Dietary

concerns are usually based on fat and caloric content,

salt (sodium) concentrations, and presence of addi-

tives such as nitrite and synthetic antioxidants.

0027Concern for fat and caloric content has been most

significant for traditional sausage products which

have been formulated with 30% or more fat. A limi-

tation to fat reduction in the past has been the tough

rubbery texture that occurs in low-fat, high-protein

products if other adjustments are not made. Recent

technology developments with nonmeat ingredients

have permitted meat processors to offer reduced-fat

and fat-free products with very acceptable textural

characteristics. Thus, consumers are given a choice

and can seek out low-fat products by reviewing the

product labels. Salt (sodium) content has also been

reduced in many products, though sausage products

will always contain higher sodium levels than fresh

meat. Sodium content of processed meats may remain

3790 MEAT/Sausages and Comminuted Products

a concern to individuals who are hypersensitive to

dietary sodium. Product labels provide information

on sodium content so that consumers can make edu-

cated choices. Nitrite and synthetic antioxidants have

both been controversial because of concern that these

compounds may be potential carcinogens. Nitrite,

however, is not, by itself, a carcinogen, though it can

react with other components in meat systems to form

carcinogenic nitrosamines. Past research has im-

proved curing procedures to the point where virtually

all nitrite is utilized in meat curing reactions with

none available for formation of carcinogens. Recent

research has shown that residual nitrite in commer-

cial processed meats has declined dramatically from

that found a few years ago. Total nitrite consumption

from processed meat is presently less than 5% of the

total dietary intake. Concerns for the synthetic anti-

oxidants have not been investigated as thoroughly as

for nitrite. However, in this case, other antioxidants

may be used to replace the synthetics if necessary – an

alternative that does not exist for nitrite.

See also: Antioxidants: Natural Antioxidants; Synthetic

Antioxidants; Beef; Browning: Nonenzymatic;

Convenience Foods; Curing; Fermented Foods:

Fermented Meat Products; Flavor (Flavour)

Compounds: Structures and Characteristics; Food

Safety; Meat: Analysis; Plant Design: Process Control

and Automation; Pork; Poultry: Chicken; Ducks and

Geese; Turkey; Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage

Further Reading

Cassens RG (1994) Meat Preservation: Preventing Losses

and Assuring Safety. Trumbull, CT: Food and Nitrition

Press.

Claus JR, Colby J-W and Flick GJ (1994) Processed meats/

poultry/seafood. In: Kinsman DM, Kotula AW and

Breidenstein BC (eds) Muscle Foods, pp. 106–162.

New York, New York: Chapman and Hall.

Girard JP (1992) Smoking. In: Girard JP (ed.) Technology

of Meat and Meat Products, pp. 165–205. Chichester,

West Sussex: Ellis Horwood.

Girard JP and Bucharles C (1992) Acid fermentation. In:

Girard JP (ed.) Technology of Meat and Meat Products,

pp. 138–164. Chichester, West Sussex: Ellis Horwood.

Goutefonzea R (1992) Salting and curing. In: Girard JP

(ed.) Technology of Meat and Meat Products, pp. 115–

137. Chichester, West Sussex: Ellis Horwood.

Hammes WP and Hertel C (1998) New Developments in

Meat Starter Cultures. Meat Science, vol. 49, pp. 5125–

5138. Exeter: Elsevier Science.

Hedrick HB, Aberle ED, Forrest JC, Judge MD and Merkel

RA (1994) Principles of Meat Science, 3rd edn. Dubu-

que, IA: Kendall Hunt.

Hugas M (1998) Bacteriocinogenic Lactic Acid Bacteria

for the Biopreservation of Meat and Meat Products.

Meat Science, vol. 49, pp. 5139–5150. Exeter: Elsevier

Science.

Ince K (1998) Dry Fermented Sausages. Meat Science,

vol. 49, pp. 5169–5178. Exeter: Elsevier Science.

Knutson J (1999) American Meat Institute – Meat Facts.

Mt Morris, IL: Watt.

Romans JR, Costello WJ, Carlson CW, Greaser ML and

Jones KW (1994) The Meat We Eat, 13th edn. Danville,

IL: Interstate.

Rust RE (1987) Sausage products. In: Price JF and Schwei-

gert BS (eds) The Science of Meat and Meat Products,

pp. 457–486. Westport, CT: Food and Nutrition Press.

Schmidt GR (1987) Functional behavior of meat compon-

ents in processing. In: Price JF and Schweigert BS (eds)

The Science of Meat and Meat Products, pp. 413–430.

Westport, CT: Food and Nutrition Press.

Taubes G (1998) The (Political) Science of Salt. Science, vol.

281, pp. 898–907. Washington, DC: American Associ-

ation for the Advancement of Science.

Analysis

B D McLean, Chemistry and Biochemistry Dept,

Chipping Campden, UK

Introduction

0001Meat consists essentially of water, protein, fat, and

mineral salts (ash) and it is these proximate analyses

that are carried out routinely in many laboratories.

This is often to identify the data which can be used for

labeling purposes, or to calculate the apparent meat

content. This in turn can be used to calculate the

added-water content of products such as ham and

bacon that contain added curing solutions. Meat

products such as bacon, sausages, and burgers often

also contain ingredients such as wheat rusk, sugar,

and soya and hence also contain carbohydrates. The

level of carbohydrates needs to be known when cal-

culating energy content and possibly meat content

and is routinely estimated ‘by difference’ using the

formula in Table 1. This carbohydrate ‘by difference’

value is usually sufficient for routine work; however,

if necessary the carbohydrate can be analyzed directly

from the analysis of sugar, starch, and dietary fiber

which makes up the bulk of the carbohydrate in meat

products. Table 1 also lists the most common analyses

carried out on meat and meat products.

Sampling

0002Meat, being a natural product, is very variable in its

composition. Raw meat consists essentially of muscle

MEAT/Analysis 3791

and fatty tissues held together by tough connective

tissue. It is somewhat difficult therefore to obtain a

homogeneous sample from such a mixture that is

suitable for analysis. Prior to the analysis of meat

and meat products, it is almost always necessary to

chop and blend the samples. It is also necessary

to consider the amount of sample to take, for

example, the number of entities such as pies and

sausages to include, and what part is to be included

(e.g., should the rind be removed from bacon? Should

the pastry be separated from pies?). The presence of

pieces of rind in the final sample makes it difficult to

blend evenly and it may be preferred to remove the

rind prior to blending. The more uniform the final

mix, the easier it will be to obtain good-quality

repeatable analytical results. Once blended, the

samples must be stored in airtight containers with

the minimum amount of air space to avoid loss of

moisture. If they are not to be analyzed immediately

(the preferred option) then they must be deep-frozen

to prevent chemical changes to the proteins and fat.

Quality of Results

0003 To show that analytical results are under control it is

necessary to carry out quality control procedures.

These may involve the analysis of reference materials

(prepared in-house or purchased with precertifica-

tion), replicate analysis, or participation in profi-

ciency testing schemes. One proficiency scheme

which has a meat test series called ‘nutritional com-

ponents’ is the UK Food Analysis Performance As-

sessment Scheme (FAPAS). This includes the analysis

of fat, water, ash, protein, hydroxyproline, and salt

(sodium and chloride) in meat and meat products and

it is a useful way to show the quality of these analyses.

Other series are available which are suitable for meat

analyses including those covering the composition of

fats, presence of veterinary medicines, and levels

of trace elements.

Nitrogen and Protein

0004This is an important analysis in determining the com-

position and meat content of meat and meat prod-

ucts. For many years the protein content has been

determined by the Kjeldahl procedure, often in one

of its semi-automated forms. This assumes that the

proportion of non-protein nitrogen in a food material

is too small to be significant and that a determination

of total nitrogen (excluding that present as nitrate and

nitrite, which is not measured by Kjeldahl anyway)

will therefore be an accurate reflection of the total

protein content. In the Kjeldahl procedure, the entire

food sample is digested at high temperatures (420



with boiling sulfuric acid under reflux. Essentially,

the protein is converted to ammonium ions by diges-

tion with superheated sulfuric acid. The digestion

includes potassium sulfate and a catalyst of copper,

mercury, or titanium, although the use of mercury is

frowned upon these days due to its environmental

pollution problems. The nitrogen content is then de-

termined by making the digest alkaline and distilla-

tion of the resulting ammonia into boric acid or

standardized acid solution. The ammonia is then

titrated with standard acid or alkali respectively.

The nitrogen content is converted into a protein con-

tent using a factor of 6.25, which assumes 16% of

nitrogen is present in meat proteins.

0005There is now increasing use of the Dumas analysis

technique to determine the nitrogen content of foods. In

this procedure, the nitrogen-containing constituents of

the sample are combusted at high temperature in the

presence of oxygen and helium. This produces oxides of

nitrogen which are then reduced over copper to gaseous

nitrogen and measured by thermal conductivity. The

tbl0001 Table 1 Common analyses on meat and meat products

Analyte or test Commonly usedmethods

Nitrogen Kjeldahl or Dumas method

Fat Acid hydrolysis and ether extraction or Soxhlet-type extraction of ‘free fat’

Ash Incineration at 450–550



Water/moisture Oven drying at 101–105



C (with or without use of sand)

Carbohydrate Calculation by difference from analytes above using the formula

Carbohydrate (by difference) ¼ 100  (% fat þ % water þ % protein þ % ash)

Qualitative identification of

meat, cereal, soya,

onion, heart, kidney, MRM, etc.

Microscopic examination

Soya protein Soya immunoassay

Connective tissue content (collagen) Hydroxyproline determination by colorimetric method

Indication of previous freezing b-HADH enzyme test

Species of meat present Species immunoassays and DNA techniques

b-HADH, b-hydroxyacyl-coenzyme A-dehydrogenase; MRM, mechanically recovered meat.

3792 MEAT/Analysis

level of nitrogen is then converted to protein content by

the conventional factors mentioned above. Modern de-

velopments in instrumentation have allowed the Dumas

procedure to be automated to a far greater extent than

the digestion and steam distillation stages of the Kjeldahl

approach.

0006 It should be noted that the Dumas technique does

not necessarily measure the same substances in meat

as the more traditional Kjeldahl technique. Table 2

shows some details of the results obtained on five

samples of chicken by both of these methods. It has

been shown that the means of the Dumas results are

statistically significantly higher than the Kjeldahl

method and would give rise to a calculated apparent

meat content approximately 2% higher than the

latter method. This difference may not normally be

a problem but it may be of significance in calculations

of added water content.

0007 The other meat species tested in the work were not

significantly different. It must also be noted that the

official nitrogen factors used to convert nitrogen

levels into a meat content have so far been determined

only by the Kjeldahl procedure. The British Standard

quotes a level of 0.1 g per 100 g for the repeatability

of the nitrogen determination using the Kjeldahl pro-

cedure. In practice, a repeatability of 0.07% absolute

(95% confidence) is achievable.

Ash

0008 The ash content of foods is the least important value

and is relatively easy to determine. The method for

ash is well-documented, with the food normally being

incinerated at a temperature of between 525 and

575



C. The ash content of meat is normally about

1%, but when salt is added (e.g., cured meats), then

this level increases proportionally. The ash consists of

minerals such as sodium (especially if salt is present),

calcium, potassium, magnesium and iron and zinc,

with chloride and phosphates. The presence of bone

particles in meat and meat products will obviously

also increase the ash content.

0009Where the ash is to be used for the determination of

the salt content or trace metals analysis, then the

lower end of the quoted temperature range for ashing

is recommended as chloride and some metals can

volatilize above 550



C. In general, the repeatability

(95% confidence) of the ash determination should be

0.1% absolute or less.

Fat

0010The fat present in meat may be considered as consist-

ing of free fat and bound fat. The free fat can be

extracted by less polar solvents such as petroleum

spirit or diethyl ether. The bound lipids need to

be released from the protein matrix by the use of

acid or alkaline hydrolysis. This allows all of the fat

present in the food to be extracted and measured

gravimetrically.

0011Problems are sometimes encountered when labora-

tories achieve low-fat-content results due to the use

of analytical methods that do not remove all of the

bound fat. These are normally based on modifications

of the traditional Soxhlet solvent extraction process

determined on commercially available equipment.

When such fat results are declared on the label of

the food, the data have been found to be low by

enforcement laboratories that frequently use acid hy-

drolysis methods to remove all of the fat present from

the food. On some occasions, laboratories have used

‘correction factors’ to increase the free fat to the

expected level of total fat. The use of such correction

factors is not good practice.

0012The Werner-Schmid and Weibbull-Stoldt methods

are particularly good methods for the determination

of fat in meat as they involve an acid hydrolysis step

that releases the bound fat prior to extraction. The

repeatability level quoted in the British Standard of

0.5% is achievable at low level but is very difficult for

laboratories to achieve consistently at levels above

30% fat.

Moisture

0013Moisture or water is normally determined in meat by

drying at temperatures between 101 and 105



C. This

is achieved by weighing a few grams of the blended

food with a small amount of sand in a dish. The

inclusion of a rod assists in mixing the meat with

the sand. The meat–sand mixture in the dish is then

partly dried on a water bath and mixed further to

form a friable mass before further drying in an oven at

around 103



C. Using this procedure it should be

noted that any substance that is volatile at 103



would be measured as water. Alcohol or acetic acid,

which may be present in some meat products (e.g.,

tbl0002 Table 2 Comparison of the nitrogen content of chicken as

determined by the Dumas and Kjeldahl methods

Sample % Nitrogen

Kjeldahl Dumas

1 3.14 3.28

2 3.18 3.26

3 3.19 3.27

4 3.22 3.27

5 3.25 3.28

Mean 3.196 3.271

Calculated protein 19.98% 20.44%

MEAT/Analysis 3793