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870 Charged Particle and Photon Interactions with Matter

30.4.3 Space MaterialS expoSure experiMent

Understanding the degradation of spacecraft materials can be achieved through actual space expo-

sure and ground laboratory studies. Each method has advantages and disadvantages. Opportunities

for examining space own materials, through retrieved ight hardware or dedicated experiments,

are rare. Dedicated space experiments are expensive and require long lead times from planning

to ight. Differences between the experimental environment, intended mission environment, and

synergistic environmental effects require cautious interpretation of results. In cases where it is not

possible to retrieve spacecraft hardware, data available from satellite operations such as power out-

put and spacecraft surface temperatures can also be used to assess material performance to some

extent. When severe degradation is evident, however, it is often not possible to conclusively identify

Photodiode or QCM

Temperature control block

(a)

Sample

Irradiation

chamber

Sample holder

VUV

EB source

Linear motion

feedthrough

source

VUV source

(b)

EB source

AO source

VUV source

Irradiation chamber

Figure 30.29 Schematic view (a) and visual appearance (b) of the combined space effects test facility.

(Reprinted from Shimamura, H. and Miyazaki, E., J. Spacecr. Rockets, 46, 241, 2009; Miyazaki, E. and

Shimamura, H., Current performance and issues of the combined space effects test facility, JAXA-RM-07-004

[in

Japanese], 2007. With permission.)

Radiation Effects on Semiconductors and Polymers for Space Applications 871

the cause or mechanism of degradation, since comprehensive analysis of materials is not possible.

Ground laboratory studies can be used to examine individual environmental effects or a combi-

nation of environmental effects. Laboratory tests can be conducted in a timely manner by using

accelerated levels for some environmental effects; but due to the difculties in simulating the space

effects with accuracy, complex calibrations and cautious interpretation of the results are required.

A combination of space exposures, ground laboratory studies, and computational modeling is most

useful

for assuring durability of spacecraft materials (Kutz, 2005).

Evaluation

of oxygen integration with materials (EOIM)-1, -2, and -3 experiments were con-

ducted in the United States in the 1980s. The materials were exposed for approximately one week

for the mission period of the space shuttle (Brinza et al., 1994). The Long Duration Exposure Facility

(LDEF) was launched by the space shuttle on April 7, 1984. The retrieval was delayed by 69 months

due to the Challenger disaster (January 1986). A lot of valuable data about the inuence of space

environment was obtained (LDEF Report, 1991, 1992, 1993). The European Retrievable Carrier

(Eureca) was launched with the space shuttle in the exposure satellite experiment that Europe car-

ried out in July 1992, and it was retrieved to the ground in July 1993 after about one year (ESA,

1994). An experiment that used the Mir space station of the former Soviet Union was also conducted.

The Passive Optical Sample Assembly (POSA) I and II experiments were part of an International

Space Station risk-mitigation study placed on the exterior of the MIR Space Station (Zwiener, 1998;

Gary Pippin et al., 2000). The National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), the fore-

runner of JAXA, tested space-material exposure in the STS-85/Evaluation of Space Environment

and Effects on Materials (ESEM) mission in 1997 (Imagawa, 2002), and in the Exposed Facility

Flyer

Unit (EFFU) of the Space Flyer Unit (SFU) in 1996 (Fukatsu, 1997).

The

International Space Station (ISS) is a huge manned construction located about 400km above

the Earth. The ISS will be assembled in space step by step, combining components carried by

more than 40 launch missions, and will be completed in 2010. The United States has implemented

a series of Material International Space Station Experiments (MISSE) on the ISS. MISSE-1 and

2 were attached to the exterior of the ISS during the STS 105 mission (August 10, 2001). Then,

MISSE-1 and -2 were retrieved during the STS 114 mission (July 26, 2005) and the candidate mate-

rials returned to the experiment investigators for analysis. MISSE-6A and 6B were mounted on the

Station’s exterior on a truss segment (March 2008). The samples for MISSE-6A and 6B include

over 400 new and affordable materials that may be used in advanced reusable launch systems and

Figure 30.30 SEMIRAMIS. (Reprinted from ONERA/DESP, Home page http://www.onera.fr/desp-en/

technical-resources/semiramis.php.

With permission.)

872 Charged Particle and Photon Interactions with Matter

advanced spacecraft systems including optics, sensors, electronics, power, coatings, structural mate-

rials, and protection for the next generation of spacecraft. The samples are installed in holders and

placed in experiment trays, called passive experiment containers (PECs). ISS crewmembers will

retrieve MISSE-6A and 6B during an extra vehicular activity (EVA) after approximately one year

of exposure (deGroh et al., 2001; Banks et al., 2006; Finckenor, 2006; JAXA, 2009; Kleiman et al.,

2009). The Micro-Particles Capturer and Space Environment Exposure Device (MPAC&SEED)

experiment that used the Service Module (SM) of Russia on the ISS was executed from 2001 to

2005. This was the rst experiment that prepared the same samples in three sets and evaluated the

relation between material deterioration and exposure period (10 months (0.9 years), 28 months (2.4

years), and 46 months (3.8 years)) (JAXA, 2009). In the SEED experiment, we were able to get

data on space-environmental effects on the material, as well as orbital induced environment effect

data such as contamination effect data (Baba and Kimoto, 2009; Kimoto et al., 2009; Miyazaki

and Yamagata, 2009; Shimamura and Yamagata, 2009; Steagall et al., 2009). Figure 30.31 shows

examples of space materials exposure experiments. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is one of

NASA’s most successful and long-lasting science missions. The HST was launched on April 25,

1990 into low earth orbit. The HST was designed to be serviced on orbit to upgrade its scientic

capabilities. During the second servicing mission (SM2) in February 1997, astronauts noticed that

the multilayer insulation (MLI) covering the telescope was damaged. Large pieces of the outer

layer of MLI (Aluminized Teon uorinated ethylene propylene (Al-FEP)) were cracked in several

(a)

(b)

Figure 30.31 Space materials exposure experiment. (a) MISSE 1 being examined during a spacewalk in

January 2003. (b) MPAC&SEED on SM. (Reprinted from JAXA, Proceedings of International Symposium on

SM/MPAC&SEED Experiment,

JAXA-SP-08-015E, Tsukuba, Japan, 2009. With permission.)

Radiation Effects on Semiconductors and Polymers for Space Applications 873

locations around the telescope. A piece of curled-up Al-FEP was retrieved by the astronauts and was

found to be severely embrittled, as witnessed by ground testing. Figure 30.32 shows large cracks on

the outer layer of the solar facing MLI on the HST as observed during SM2, after 6.8 years in space

(de

Groh et al., 2002).

Extensive

testing was conducted on the retrieved HST MLI, combined with ground-based test-

ing, which revealed that embrittlement of FEP on HST is caused by radiation exposure (electron

and proton radiation, with contributions from solar are x-rays and ultraviolet (UV) radiation)

combined with thermal effects (deGroh, 2001, 2002). But it has been shown that accelerated labo-

ratory testing often does not simulate accurately the degradation caused by combined on-orbit

environmental exposure (Townsend et al., 1998).

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879

Applications of Rare Gas

Liquids

to Radiation Detectors

Satoshi Suzuki

Waseda University

Tokyo,

Japan

Akira Hitachi

Kochi Medical School

Nankoku,

Japan

31.1 introduCtion

Rare gas liquids (RGLs) have excellent properties such as those required for radiation detectors,

for instance, high electron mobility, low W-value, high photon production rate, high density, high

Z number with no permanent radiation damage, and practically no limit for the size. In addition,

ultrahigh purication is attainable in RGLs. Furthermore, electron and photon multiplications are

possible

in liquid xenon (LXe).

Section

31.2 discusses basic radiation properties of RGLs for detector media, which are con-

siderably different from those in water and in molecular liquids (Mozumder and Hatano, 2004).

Evidence observed in simple RGLs may help study the effects of ionizing radiation in matter. Next,

new detector research and development for ionization and scintillation detectors and current topics

Contents

31.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................879

31.2 Basic

Properties of Rare Gas Liquids for Detector Media...................................................880

31.3

Applications

in Accelerator Physics ..................................................................................... 891

31.3.1

Ionization

Calorimeter.............................................................................................. 891

31.3.2

NA48

LKr Calorimeter.............................................................................................892

31.3.3

ATLAS LAr Calorimeter .........................................................................................894

31.3.4 LXe

Scintillation Calorimeter (MEG Experiment)..................................................896

31.4

Applications

in Non-Accelerator Physics ............................................................................. 898

31.4.1

Liquid

Argon Time Projection Chamber (ICARUS)................................................ 898

31.4.1.1

Space

Resolution........................................................................................901

31.4.1.2

Energy Resolution......................................................................................901

31.4.1.3 Particle

Identication................................................................................. 901

31.4.2

XMASS

Project........................................................................................................902

31.4.3

Dark

Matter Search...................................................................................................905

31.4.3.1

Interaction

of Slow Ions with Matter .........................................................906

31.4.3.2

Detectors for Dark Matter Searches ..........................................................908

31.5 Applications

in Medical Imaging (PET) .............................................................................. 911

31.5.1

Liquid

Xenon Compton PET .................................................................................... 911

31.5.2

Liquid

Xenon TOF-PET ........................................................................................... 914

References...................................................................................................................................... 916