Jeffries Vincent (Editor). Handbook Of Public Sociology

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112 Chapter 6

Two basic perspectives in critical sociology are the identification and

analysis of the problematic or pathological, and the proposing of an alter-

native state that is more positive in realizing some conception of the good.

Sorokin’s critical sociology includes both. The moral vision he provides is

intended both for sociology and for the general society. This delineation of

the nature of the good is derived primarily from aspects of his conception

of integralism and its potential for reconstruction.

Sociology: Limited Progress and the Integral Alternative

Sorokin’s critical perspective regarding sociology is that it has largely

failed in developing its potential. A flawed ontology and methodology that

assumes too much similarity between the natural and social sciences has

been emphasized. Although a great deal of information has been collected,

few valid generalizations have resulted, and the understanding of basic so-

ciocultural uniformities is limited. This meager achievement has inevitably

prevented significant practical contributions to reducing social pathologies

or improving the general welfare of human beings (Sorokin 1947:616–619,

1956a, 1998a[1941]).

The positive alternative necessary for greater productivity and creativ-

ity involves several characteristics: an integral system of truth entailing

an ontology and epistemology that take account of sensory, rational, and

supersensory reality and modes of cognition; the formulation of some con-

ception of the good to guide scientific practice; referential principles that

better represent the unique characteristics of sociocultural phenomena; a

greater emphasis on synthesis and generalization; changes in methods;

and a different topical focus (Sorokin 1941a:746–764, 1941b:116–132,

1956a:315–317, 1961, 1964a:226–237, 1965, 1998a[1941]).

The Crisis of Sensate Culture

The sensate culture of this era is characterized by a constricted perspective

that focuses on the empirical-sensory aspects of reality at the expense of a

more accurate and comprehensive perspective. Consequently, the ommis-

sions and many false parts of the culture render it inadequate as a design

for living and as a context for meeting basic human needs. The system of

truth is characterized by skepticism, relativism, and separation from a con-

ception of realizing the good. The ethical system lacks universal standards

and emphasizes subjectivism, relativism, expediency, and hedonism. A

considerable portion of art is antimoral and antisocial. Compulsory rela-

tionships are frequent while both contractual and familistic are lessened

and often unstable. Interpersonal and intergroup conflicts are common,

as is war. Great power is concentrated in a small number of individuals

The Scientific System of Public Sociology 113

and groups and is frequently misused, sometimes in ways that profoundly

effect human welfare in a negative manner (Sorokin 1941b; Sorokin and

Lunden 1959).

The Positive Critique: Seeking and Realizing Ultimate Values

Sorokin develops a positive critical perspective that proposes ultimate

values at the most abstract level to address both disciplinary limitations

and the sociocultural crisis: truth, goodness, and beauty. At higher levels,

these values are inseparable and transformable, in that each one contrib-

utes to and to some degree comprises the other (Sorokin 1954a:6, 30–33,

1957b:184). Considered separately, truth and goodness are both directly

relevant to the progress and direction of sociology. Truth, a more accurate

and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of reality, can achieve

greater validity with an integral ontology and epistemology. Love is the es-

sence of goodness. Ontologically, love is the most powerful force for unity,

integration, and harmony in the universe (Sorokin 1954a:6–9). Ethically,

love is viewed by all major religions as the foundational component of

goodness (Sorokin 1954a:78–79).

This abstract view of love as goodness is reformulated with respect to

both individual personality and the sociocultural. At each of these levels of

analysis goodness as love can become a concept in theoretical development

and a variable in research.

Individual Goodness

The potential of individual goodness is expressed through altruistic

love (Sorokin 1950b, 1954a, 1964b:160–208). This form of love involves

cooperation, mutual aid, unselfishness, sacrifice, friendship, and the per-

formance of duty (Sorokin 1954a:47). Terms such as benevolence, compas-

sion, agape, and the Golden Rule have been applied to this universalistic

and creative love (Sorokin 1954a:485).

The increase of love in the sociocultural universe becomes a fundamental

positive goal of Sorokin’s critical sociology because of its benefits. Unself-

ish love exerts powerful effects on the lives of individuals and on society

(Sorokin 1954a:47–79, 1964b:160–208). Evidence indicates that love is

positively related to longevity, beneficial in some physical and mental dis-

orders, and contributes to the optimal development of personality. On the

social level a minimal degree of love is necessary for harmony and group

survival. Love reduces enmity and aggression and promotes friendliness

between individuals and between groups.

Altruistic love can vary from low to high on five dimensions. These are:

intensity, the degree of effort and involvement of self; extensity, the range

114 Chapter 6

of love to individuals and groups; duration, the amount of time love is

manifested; purity, the degree of selflessness of love; adequacy, whether

love benefits the other in both subjective intent and objective result (So-

rokin 1954a:15–35).

Sociocultural Goodness

On the social level love is manifested in two forms, in meaningful in-

teraction that is solidary, and in social relationships that are familistic. In

either case, the association between persons is characterized by the same

mutual helpfulness, cooperation, and unity that characterizes love (Sorokin

1954a:13). Increasing such solidary interaction and relationships is part of

the moral vision of Sorokin’s critical perspective.

In solidary interaction the meanings and values of the interacting par-

ties and their overt behaviors concur and are mutually helpful in realizing

the ends they are seeking. This contrasts with the opposition and mutual

hindrance characteristic of antagonistic interaction. In mixed interaction,

the most common form, both are present to some degree in different pro-

portions.

In the most intense solidary interaction, each of the interacting parties

loves the other for his or her own sake apart from utilitarian and hedonistic

motives, and this solidarity includes all aspects of the other’s life. At the

highest levels of solidarity, love is extended on the interpersonal and inter-

group levels to include potentially everyone (Sorokin 1947:93–99).

Social relationships exist when there is a distribution of rights and duties,

social differentiation and stratification, and norms defining conduct in an

organized group (Sorokin 1937c:19–21). There are three main types: fa-

milistic, compulsory, and contractual. Almost all groups are a combination

of these types, with the proportion of each varying. Familistic relationships

are predominately solidary and typically have high intensity, extensity, and

duration. Interaction is mutual and direct, and predominately unselfish.

There are high levels of interdependence, attachment, and similarity of

values and normative standards.

The prevalence of solidary interaction and familistic social relationships

is inevitably related to the characteristics of culture. Most important in

this regard is the nature of the values and norms of the interacting parties.

Cultures that emphasize mutual aid, love, and sympathy, as expressed in

principles such as the Golden Rule, will have high levels of interpersonal

and intergroup solidarity. In contrast, cultures emphasizing egoism, ri-

valry, and material sensory values can expect high antagonism (Sorokin

1947:119–131, 1998c[1951]).

An integral culture will increase interpersonal and intergroup solidarity.

It will lessen emphasis on materialistic goals and focus concern on the ulti-

The Scientific System of Public Sociology 115

mate and perennial values of truth, beauty, and goodness. Universal norms

will emphasize love and solidarity. Since these values are impersonal and

altruistic, they do not engender antagonisms. In this integral culture soli-

dary interaction and familistic social relationships will predominate (So-

rokin 1941b:316–321, 1948:107–108, 1998c[1951]).

The Role of Science

Sociology and the other social sciences can make important contribu-

tions by increasing our knowledge and understanding of love and soli-

darity (Sorokin 1954a:473–480). Purposive scientific endeavor can focus

on problems such as how to increase our ability to satisfy basic human

needs, documenting the negative effects of crime and war, analyzing the

values and ethical philosophies that are conducive to solidarity, discover-

ing techniques for increasing altruism in all aspects of society and culture,

and improving our understanding of the optimal circumstances for the ef-

fectiveness of different techniques of altruistic transformation.

In an integral system of truth, science, philosophy, and religion would

be engaged in a coordinated effort to provide knowledge and understand-

ing of fundamental sociocultural uniformities that have implications for

the good of individuals and for the common good. Realization of the

ethical principles of love and solidarity, such as those espoused by all the

major world religions, is viewed by Sorokin as an important focus of this

endeavor (Sorokin 1941b:317–318, 1948:158, 1998c[1951]; see also John-

ston 1995:167–168, 179).

The scientific study of love in its various creative forms should provide a

powerful force of motivation and unity for social scientists. This focus has

great appeal, because love is a common value that transcends individual,

disciplinary, and group differences (Sorokin and Lunden 1959:178).

POLICY SOCIOLOGY

Policy sociology uses the theories and methods of professional sociology to

develop solutions to problems. Its legitimacy is based on the effectiveness

of these solutions (Burawoy 2005).

In Sorokin’s system of sociology the critical perspective defines the prob-

lems to be solved, and the goals to be sought. This era is a time of great

crisis that can be effectively overcome only through the increase of altruistic

love and solidarity (Sorokin 1963b:268–292). This unselfish love must

be universal, extending to all of humanity. When love and solidarity are

limited to the in-group, they become a source of antagonism toward out-

groups (Sorokin 1954a:459–489).

116 Chapter 6

The theoretical foundation of Sorokin’s policy sociology is the assump-

tion that the subject matter of sociology is society, culture, and personality.

Since the sociocultural reality always entails these three interdependent

systems, all three must be changed for effective reconstruction to take place

(Sorokin 1948:93–94). Further, an infinite number of individual actions

shape and direct the content of society and culture. Therefore, though all

must be transformed, the necessary condition for social and cultural re-

construction is the self-directed effort of individuals to increase their own

personal levels of altruistic love. Extensive case study, biographical, and

historical data is presented describing the techniques of altruistic transfor-

mation (Sorokin 1954a: 285–455, 1954b). Many of these techniques, such

as good deeds and altruistic self-identification, are directly applicable by the

individual to himself or herself. Others involve techniques that are applied

within and by organized groups.

On the basis of individual altruistic transformation, the second and third

policy tasks of reconstruction are the planned change of society and of cul-

ture (Sorokin 1948:93–94). This planned reconstruction progresses from

micro to meso to macro social and cultural units (Sorokin 1948:234–235).

One possible trajectory from micro to macro toward greater love is to first

begin by increasing love for family and close friends, then move to abstain-

ing from actions that are harmful to anyone, then to extend love to all those

who are in need in one’s community. If all communities do this, a first stage

of universal love, in which all are loved by some individuals and groups, is

reached (Sorokin 1954a:463–464).

The culture must also be changed. The basic premise regarding the nature

of reality is the foundation of cultural integration (Sorokin 1937a:3–152,

1957a:2–52). Therefore, changing this premise to an integral one is the

most effective policy approach to fundamentally change the culture to one

that will be more creative and foster solidarity (Sorokin 1948:107–108).

Additionally, various policies can be instituted to limit abuses and increase

the socially beneficial uses of power (Sorokin and Lunden 1959).

The findings of scientific research are vital to understanding the most ef-

fective policies to accomplish personal, social, and cultural reconstruction.

A concentrated effort of the scientific community is necessary to accomplish

this goal in reasonable time (Sorokin 1954a:473–480, 1948:234–235,

1998c[1951]).

PUBLIC SOCIOLOGY

Public sociology involves communication about sociological knowledge

and understandings with those outside the academic community, whether

The Scientific System of Public Sociology 117

particular groups or the general public. Its legitimacy is based on its rel-

evance (Burawoy 2005).

Sorokin’s system of sociology contains a number of works intended for

the general public. They derive directly from his professional writings and

are intended to inform readers regarding the central problems of the con-

temporary era and their solutions. Three major works of this nature include

an analysis of the crisis of contemporary culture and social relationships

and a vision of their reconstruction (1941b), a formulation of policies for

personal, social, and cultural reconstruction (1948), and a historical over-

view of the misuse of power and a program for limiting the abuses of pow-

erholders (Sorokin and Lunden 1959). Other writings by Sorokin intended

for the general public are focused on basic social trends, including religious

and moral polarization (1964b), the nature and importance of altruistic

love (1950a), and the effects of the sexual revolution on individuals and

on society (1956b).

Sorokin’s public sociology advances ideas that have great relevance to the

general public. His system of thought provides a comprehensive analysis of

this era that gives the potential for closure on basic issues. He describes the

nature and source of problems and pathologies, identifies more positive

alternatives, describes the nature of the personal, social, and cultural recon-

struction that is necessary, and details the means to realize it. The necessary

condition for this comprehensive reconstruction is individual transforma-

tion toward greater love. This is then followed by collective actions to

change society and culture. Thus a program for individual participation and

collective action that is potentially available to everyone is provided.

CONCLUSION

Several principles regarding the systemic nature of Burawoy’s four form

model of sociology are evident in Sorokin’s system of sociology. Most fun-

damentally, the interdependence of the four forms and the manner they

contribute to the comprehensiveness, creativity, and overall contribution

of a system of social thought is illustrated. In this sense, and in terms of the

content of his ideas and system of sociology, Sorokin is an exemplar of the

nature of a complete system of public sociology.

First, the more comprehensive, empirically grounded, and theoretically

advanced the professional sociology, the more adequate it is as a basis for

the other three forms of practice. Their content and direction is significantly

shaped by this base.

Sorokin’s professional sociology provides such a system of sociology as a

foundation. His conceptual frame of reference and elaboration of the nature

118 Chapter 6

of the discipline provide for the study of a wide range of phenomena from

a systematic and inclusive perspective. Sorokin’s own substantive sociology

provides a model of theoretical and conceptual analysis in fundamental

areas such as general structure and dynamics, and in a variety of substan-

tive fields. His analysis is linked to empirical data and research using case

study, historical, and statistical data. His integral perspective involves an

innovative ontology and epistemology that provides for broadening and

refocusing the perspective of sociology by incorporating philosophical and

religious ideas and conceptions of the good within its frame of reference

and practice.

Second, critical sociology can be of great importance in directing profes-

sional activity to specific areas of practice. In his autobiography Sorokin

(1963b:268) describes how his concern for humankind led him to reorient

his professional sociology to the scientific study of altruistic love. Con-

versely, the knowledge and understanding derived from the professional

base can be the source of a critical perspective, as it also was in Sorokin’s

case.

Sorokin’s critical sociology illustrates that critical sociology is more vital

and powerful in shaping the content and direction of practice if it focuses

not only on problems, but also on an alternative vision of the good. In this

sense there is a positive critical sociology that can provide a compelling

moral vision of a better world. This positive critical sociology is exemplified

in Sorokin’s analysis of goodness as altruistic love and solidarity and his

vision of a new integral culture as an alternative to the problematic sensate

culture of this era.

Third, policy sociology can be given a powerful empirical basis by a body

of theory and research, and direction by an explicit and clearly articulated

critical sociology. This interdependence is clearly illustrated in Sorokin’s

system of sociology. His policy sociology of personal, social, and cultural

reconstruction is given its end to be realized by his positive critical sociol-

ogy of love, solidarity, and a new integral culture. The comprehensive na-

ture of these policies and the direction of deliberate change derive directly

from the theory and findings of Sorokin’s professional sociology, and the

goals specified in his critical sociology.

Fourth, public sociology is dependent on each of the other forms for its

full vitality. Sorokin’s historical and comparative analysis and his statistical

findings on social and cultural trends and fluctuations form the basis of his

public sociology writings on the state of the contemporary world and his

vision of a new integral culture. Likewise, his case studies of individuals and

groups and his analysis of the nature, sources, and effects of altruistic love

form the basis of his public sociology writings on these topics. Sorokin’s

policy sociology pertaining to altruism and the limiting of abuses of power

is firmly grounded in his professional sociology, and constitutes an impor-

The Scientific System of Public Sociology 119

tant component of his public sociology, giving it a program of practical

application. His positive critical sociology of goodness in the form of love

and solidarity is basic to the central theme of reconstruction in his public

sociology.

Sorokin’s public sociology that emerges from the other three forms is

informative, engaging, and readily comprehensible for both organic and

traditional publics. It provides a basis for dialogue regarding the good and

ultimate values, the policies by which constructive change can be realized,

and the role both individuals and groups can assume in reconstruction.

Thus Sorokin’s scientific system of four forms of practice provides a com-

pelling and relevant message admirably suited to dialogue with the public

about a better world and how it can be achieved.

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ESTABLISHING AND

PERFECTING THE MODEL