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Engineering Design
385
mark used in the sale or advertising of services to identify the services of one individual
or company and distinguish them from the services of others
[87,88].
Unlike a patent, but like
a
copyright, ownership of a trademark or service mark
is
acquired by use. An individual or company using the mark within a state may register
the mark in that state. The Secretary of State within each state has the forms for the
registration of a trademark or service mark. Once a mark has been used in interstate
or foreign commerce, the mark may be registered in the
U.S.
Patent and Trademark
Office. This
is
accomplished by filing an application to that office (see Referencc
87).
Prior
to
receking federal registration of the mark, the symbols
lM
and
ss‘
may be
used (these symbols give notice that the marks have been filed with the state). After
the mark has received federal registration the symbol
@
should be used.
There are two classes of registration for a mark. The Principal Register
is
for uniquc
and distinctive marks that when applied to products and services are not
likely
to
cause confusion
or
deception. To
be
registered on the Principal Register a mark must
be in continuous, exclusive interstate use. Marks not registrable on the Principal
Register may be registered on the Supplemental Register.
The term
of
a
federal registered trademark and service mark
is
20
years. In
order
to
secure the mark for the full
20
years, an affidavit must be filed with the
Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks in the sixth year showing the mark is
still in use.
It
is advisable to conduct
a
search in the
U.S.
Patent and Trademark
Office to determine whether a mark under consideration might conflict with
existing registered marks. Trademarks and service mark registrations may be
assigned after registration.
Once federal certification of a mark has been issued, thc mark
is
protectcd
nationwide. Any infringement by an individual or company of a mark after federal
registration can be subject to damage claims by the mark owner in U.S. District Courts.
Foreign countries require registration of a mark in compliance with local laws.
The local laws vary a great deal; thus, it
is
necessary to consult a local attorney
01-
ii
U.S.
attorney familiar with foreign patent and trademark law in order to register
a
mark in a foreign country.
Information concerning the registration of marks in the
U.S.
may be obtained
from the Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, Washington,
D.
C.,
20231.
Copyrights
The copyright protects creative works such a literary works, musical works, dramatic
works, pictorial, graphic, sculptural, motion pictures and other audio-visual works,
and computer software. It is the later that is of most concern to the engineer
[89,90].
Registration for copyright protection may be obtained by application to the Register
of Copyrights, Library of Congress, Washington,
D.
C.,
20540.
This registration must
take place on or about the time of the first sale of the creative work. The forms for
application are obtained from the address above (the application fee
is
$10)
The notice
of
copyright is given by “copyright”
or
the abbreviation “Copr” or by
the symbol
0.
The notice must be accompanied by the name of the copyright owner
and the year
of
the first publication. Like a patent, only the author
of
the creative
work can be the copyright owner. However, an assignee may file for the copyright on
behalf of the author of a creative work. In general, the term of a copyright is for the
life
of
the author (of the creative work) plus
50
years. Any infringement by
an
individual
or company of
a
registered copyright can be subject to damage claims by the creative
work owner or assignee in
US.
District Courts.
Under the Universal Copyright Convention, a
U.S.
citizen may obtain a copyright
in most countries of the world by simply publishing within the
U.S.
using the
0
symbol and the appropriate author and date
of
publication notices (only the
0
symbol
is recognized worldwide).
386
General Engineering and Science
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Chapman, R. E.,
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30.
Cox,
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Plate Techtonics and Geomagnetic Reversals,
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Hubert, M., and Willis,
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A.
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Smith, Ralph
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A
First
Course
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National Fire
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Book
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L.
N.,
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of
Organic Chemistry,
Second Edition, Litton Educational
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1965.
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Third Edition, Allyn and
Bacon, Inc., Boston,
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Textbook
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Daniels,
F.,
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Alberty, R. A.,
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Fourth Editon, John Wiley
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Second Edition, Van
Nostrand
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Design,
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Nos
Reinhold, 1991.
3
Auxiliary Equipment
William
C. Lyons,
Ph.D.,
P.E.
New Mexico Institute
of
Mining and Technology
Socorro, New Mexico
Prime Movers
........................................................................................
393
Power Transmission
..............................................................................
420
Pumps
................................................................................................. -.
458
lnternal Combustion Engines
393.
Gas Turbines
398.
Electric Motors
401.
Power
Belting and
1’
Belts
420.
Chains
429.
Classifications
458.
General Calculations
461.
Reciprocating Pumps
463.
Rotary Pumps
468.
Centrifugal Pumps
472.
Compressors
.................................
.
.......................................................
476
Classifications
477.
Standard Units
481.
General Calculations
481.
Reciprocating Compressors
484.
Rotary Compressors
487.
Centrifugal Compressors
493.
Axial-Flow Compressors
494.
References
.............................................................................................
495
39
1
Chapter
3
Auxiliary Equipment
This chapter describes the various auxiliary equipment that are important to the
function
of
oil field activities. This equipment
is
used in drilling, well completion,
production, and related operations. The discussions that follow will concentrate on
the basic operation characteristics and specifications required by a user. The aim
is
to
give the user the information needed to ascertain whether the equipment available
for a particular field operation is adequate, or if the equipment available is not
adequate, how to specify what equipment will be necessary.
PRIME
MOVERS
The prime mover is the unit that first converts an energy source into a mechanical
force. Typical prime movers are internal combustion motors, gas turbines, water
turbines, steam engines and electrical motors. The discussion will be limited to the
prime movers that are most used in modern well drilling and production operations.
These are internal combustion motors, gas turbine motors and electric motors.
Internal Combustion Engines
The internal combustion engines considered in this section are piston-type engines.
The combustion process in such engines are assumed to be constant volume, constant
pressure,
or
some combination
of
both. Piston-type internal combustion engines are
made up of a series of pistons that can move in enclosed chambers called cylinders.
These engines can be designed in a variety of configurations. The most widely used
configurations are the following
[
11:
An in-line type engine has all cylinders aligned and on one side of the crankshaft
(see Figure
3-1).
These engines are found in sizes from
4
pistons
(or
cylinders)
to as many as
16.
A V-type engine has an equal number
of
cylinders aligned on two banks of the
engine. These banks form a
V
shape (see Figure
3-2).
These engines are found
in sizes from
4
cylinders to as many as
12.
An opposed-type engine has an equal number
of
cylinders aligned on two banks
of the engine. These banks are horizontally opposed to one another on opposite
sides of the crankshaft (see Figure
3-3).
These engines are found in sizes from
4
cylinders to as many as
8.
Figure
3-1.
In-line type engine
[I].
Figure
3-2.
V-type engine
[l].
393
394
Auxiliary Equipment
Figure
3-3.
Opposed type engine
[l].
One of the more important specifications of an internal combustion engine is its
displacement volume. The displacement volume,
V,(
in3),
is
(per revolution)
K
V,
(id)
=
-d2 In
4
(3-1)
where
d
is the outside diameter of the piston (or bore of cylinder in in.),
1
is the
stroke (or length of movement)
of
the piston within the cylinder in in., and n is the
number
of
cylinders.
The nominal compression ratio (which is usually specified) is the displacement
volume plus the clearance volume divided by the clearance volume. Because
of
the
mechanics of intake value closing, the actual compression ratio
ra
is less than the
nominal. Thus, the compression pressure p (psia) may be estimated by
P
=
ra
'
P,,
(3-2)
where p, is the intake manifold pressure in psia.
There are two basic combustion cycles. These are
1.
Spark-ignition, or Otto cycle, engine which is fueled by a gas and air mixture,
2.
Compression-ignition,
or
diesel cycle engine, which is fueled by a diesel oil and
air mixture.
There can also be a combination of the two cycles in an engine. Such an engine is
called a mixed, combination, or limited pressure cycle.
The spark-ignition cycle engine uses volatile liquids or gases as fuel. Such engines
have compression ratios from
6:l
to
12:l.
Liquid gasoline is the most common fuel
for this cycle, especially for automobile, truck, and airplane engines. Large stationery
engines usually use commercial gases such as natural gas, produces gas, or coal gas.
All engines operating on this cycle use carburetors, gas-mixing valves, or fuel injection
systems
to
mix the volatile fuel with the appropriate volume of air for subsequent
combustion. This mixing can be carried out prior to the mixture being placed in the
cylinder of the engine, or mixed directly in the cylinder.
The compression-ignition cycle engine uses low volatile fuel. These are typically
fuel oils. The compression ratios for these engine are from
11.5:l
to
221.
These
engines are used to power large trucks and buses. They are also used for large engines.
The compression-ignition cycle engine usually is equipped with a fuel injection system
which allows the fuel to be mixed with air directly in the cylinders of the engine.
The internal combustion engine can be operated as a two-stroke or a four-
stroke engine.
The two-stroke engine requires two piston strokes
(or
one crackshaft revolution)
for each cycle.
In
one upward (compression) stroke of the piston, the combustible
mixture is brought into the cylinder through the intake valve and ignited near the top
of the stroke as the piston is forced downward (to provide power); the exhaust valve
is opened and the spent gases are allowed to escape. Near the bottom of their stroke
the intake valve is opened again and the combustible mixture again is brought into
the cylinder.