Snyder T. The Reconstruction of Nations Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004. 384 p
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Stanislaw Ste˛pien´, “Stanowisko Metropolity Szeptyckiego wobec zjawiska terroru poli-
tyckiego,” in Andrzej Zie˛ba, ed., Metropolita Andrzej Szeptycki, Cracow: Polska Aka-
demia Nauk, , –; Iwan Hirnyj, “Moje s´wiadectwo,” ibid., –; Bohdan
Budurowycz, “Sheptyts’kyi and the Ukrainian National Movement after ,” in Paul
Robert Magocsi, ed., Morality and Reality, Edmonton-CIUS, , –; Hansjakob
Stehle, “Sheptyts’kyi and the German Regime,” ibid., , ; Shimon Redlich, “Shep-
tyts’kyi and the Jews,” ibid., –.
.Wladyslaw Filar, Michal Klimecki, and Mychalo Szwahaluk, “Chronologia wydarzen´
na Wolyniu i Galicji w latach –,” unpublished, Warsaw ; Il’iushyn, OUN-
UPA i ukrains’ke pytannia, –.
. Torzecki, Polacy i Ukrain´cy, .
. “Postanovy III. Konferentsii Orhanizatsii Ukrains’kykh Natsionalistiv Samostiinikiv
Derzhavnikiv, – livtoho r.,” OUN v svitli postanov Velykykh Zboriv, –, .
Polish observers could see the shift: II//k and II//k, AWKW.
. M. Omeliusik, “UPA na Volyni w rotsi,” Litopys UPA, Vol. , ‒; Rostyslav
Voloshyn, “Na shliakakh zbroinoi borot’by,” ibid., Vol. , ‒; Mykola Lebed’,
Ukrains’ka povstans’ka armiia, Drohobych, , ; Oleksandr Vovk, “Preface,” Litopys
UPA, Vol. (new series), xxxix–xl. See also Taras Bul’ba, Armiia bez derzhavy, L’viv: Po-
klyk sumlinnia, , ; Eksterminacja ludnos´ci polskiej na Wo¬yniu, , ; “Niemcy a
UPA: Dokumenty,” Karta, , , –; Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, Jef-
ferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., , –.
. From the beginning, UPA commanders in Volhynia grouped Germans, Bolsheviks, and
Poles as “the enemies of Ukraine.” Volodymyr Makar, “Pivnichno-zakhidni ukrains’ki
zemli” (May ), Litopys UPA, Vol. , .
. On political aims: “Chas ne zhde,” reprint from UPA organ Samostiinist’, – January
; “Politychna deklaratsia UPA,” September ; “Za shcho boret’sia Ukrains’ka
povstancha armiia?”, August ; all three documents in Litopys UPA, Vol. , respec-
tively –, –, –; also “U voiennomu krutizhi,” ibid., Vol. , –. For
strategic justifications of the cleansing of Poles, Eksterminacja ludnos´ci polskiej na
Wo ¬yniu, . The Ukrainian attitude that “the Germans might leave, but the Poles will
stay,” was known to the Polish Home Army command. Grzegorz Motyka, “Od Wolynia
do akcji ‘Wisla’,” Wie˛z´ (), ; Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, .
. Armia Krajowa w Dokumentach, Vol. , and –.
. Ibid., Vol. , ; “Przynalez˙ nos´c´ ziem wschodnich do Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej,” zesz.
A..V., tecz, ; “Tajne,” August ,” zesz. A..V., tecz. , MSW, AMPN. On the
Polish Left in Galicia, Dzieje Konfliktów, Vol. , –.
. Meldunek , Radiogram No. M., L.dz. /, “Meldunek specjalny—Sprawa Ukrain´-
ska,” Rówecki to Sikorski, November , Oddzial VI, sygn. ...., SPPL. The
version of this report in volume of Armia Krajowa w Dokumentach is missing impor-
tant lines on page .
. Armia Krajowa w Dokumentach, Vol. , –, –, –.
. Dzieje Konfliktów, Vol. , –; Michael MacQueen, “The Polish Home Army and
the National Minorities, –,” Master’s thesis, University of Michigan, ,
, ff.; Ryszard Torzecki, “Kontakty polsko-ukrain´skie w polityce polskiego rza˛du
Notes to Pages 165–168
324
emigracyjnego i podziemia ( –),” Dzieje Najnowsze, , –, , and
passim.
. Kosyk, L’Allemagne national-socialiste et l’Ukraine, –.
. The Polish census recorded , people with Polish as first language and ,
people of Roman Catholic religion in Województwo Wolyn´skie. The reduction during
the war was due to deportations in –, forced labor in Germany in –, Soviet
and German executions, combat deaths, and disease.
. It is contended that this ethnic cleansing was a response to Polish actions connected to
the German attempts to colonize the former Lublin palatinate, then part of the General-
gouvernement. The cleansing of Volhynia was a coordinated action on a massive scale
which killed tens of thousands of Poles, whereas the Chelm/Kholm killings in the for-
mer Lublin palatinate involved hundreds of deaths.
. One member of the UPA’s security services (SB) recalled the general guideline under So-
viet interrogation: “Kill all Poles, Czechs, and Jews on the spot.” Protokol Doprosa for
I.I. Iavorskii, April , GARF, fond R-, opis , delo .
. For Polish recollections: II/, II/, II/, II/, II/, II/, II/, II/
, II/, II/, II/, II//–, II/, II/, II//kw, II/, II/
, II/, AWKW. On the massacres of July , see II/, II/, II/, II/
, II/, II/, AWKW. For Polish reports: Poselstwo RP to MSZ in London,
February , Zespol A..V., tecz, B, AMPN. For German reports: Eksterminacja lud-
nos´ci polskiej na Wokyniu, , ; see also Torzecki, Polacy i Ukrain´cy,–. For Soviet
reports: Represyvno-Karal’na Systema, ; OUN-UPA v roky viiny, , .
. Protokol Doprosa for V.E. Stupak, September , GARF, fond R-, opis , delo
.
. Ewa and Wladyslaw Siemaszko, “Mordy ukrain´skie w czasie II wojny s´wiatowej,” in
Krzysztof Jasiewicz, ed., Europe nie prowincjonalna, Warsaw: Rytm, r, .
. Litopys UPA, Vol. (new series), ff.; Torzecki, Polacy i Ukrain´cy, .
. Examples of Ukrainians saving Poles in both Volhynia and Galicia: II/, II/t, II/,
II/, II/t, II//k, II/, II//k, II/, II/, II/, II//k,
II/, AWKW.
. For the estimates of UPA troop strength, Wladyslaw Filar, “Burza” na Wolyniu, Warsaw:
Rytm, , .
. “Za shcho boretsia UPA,” Do zbroii, , (July ), in Litopys UPA, Vol. (new series),
–.
. This estimate from the calculation of Grzegorz Hryciuk, “Straty ludnos´ci na Wolyniu w
latach –,” Polska—Ukraina: Trudne pytania, Vol. , Warsaw: Karta, , .
A researcher who wished to learn the names of murdered Polish civilians in Volhynia and
Eastern Galicia could begin with the Archiwum Wschodnie Os´rodku “Karta,” Archi-
wum Glównej Komisji Badania Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu, Stowarzyszenie Up-
amie˛tnienia Polaków Pomordowanych na Wolyniu, Stowarzyszenie Upamie˛tnienia
Ofiar Zbrodni Ukrain´skich Nacjonalistów, and the Archiwum S
´
rodowiska Z
˙
olnierzy
Wolynskiej Dywizji Armii Krajowej, as well as the archival and printed sources cited
above and below.
Notes to Pages 168–170
325
. Spector, Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, –.
. Compare the reaction of Polish Jews to the liquidation of ghettoes in other cities. Calel
Perechodnik, Czy ja jestem morderca˛? Warsaw: Znak, .
.II//, II//, II//, II//, AWKW; relations of witnesses also collected
in S
´
ladami ludobojstwa, –, –; and S
´
wiadkowie mówia˛, Warsaw: S
´
wiatowy
Zwia˛zek Z
˙
olnierzy AK, , –.
. Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, .
. On self-defense, II//kw, II//k, II/, II/, AWKW. On Polish attacks on
Ukrainians: Il’iushyn, OUN-UPA i ukrains’ke pytannia, –. On Jews in Pan´ska Do-
lina, memoir of Olgierd Kowalski, AWKW. See also the articles by Klimecki and Strilka
cited below, note .
. This episode is forgotten in Poland and was denied by Khrushchev to Stalin. It is docu-
mented by recollections of Poles in the AWKW (II//k) and in AK reports in
Studium Polskiej Podziemnej in London, and will be discussed on the basis of Soviet
sources by Jeffrey Burds in his forthcoming book, A Sea of Blood and Tears. The estimate
is from Mazur, “Rola Niemiec i Zwia˛zku Sowieckiego,” .
.II/, AWKW. Sometimes the Poles got the weapons they asked for, sometimes they
did not. Compare II/, II/, II//k II//k, II//k, AWKW.
. Grzegorz Motyka, “Polski policjant na Wolyniu, Karta, , , –.
. “Zvit pro boiovi dii UPA na Volyni,” [April ], OUN-UPA v roky viiny –, at
.
. Vasyl’ Makar, “Do pochatkiv UPA—list z Volyni,” Litopys UPA, Vol. , . Reports
from the same volume (–) make clear that the UPA’s intelligence was quite aware
that it was incorrect to treat Poles in Volhynia as German agents. On the cycle, Il’iushyn,
OUN-UPA i ukrains’ke pytannia, .
. Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej, Biuro Ministra—Wydzial Polityczny, L.dz. /
WPol/, London, January , Oddzial VI, sygn. .... (); Sztab Naczelnego
Wodza, Oddzial Specjalny, L.dz./Tjn., London, January , Oddzial VI,
sygn. .... (); Sztab Naczelnego Wodza, Oddzial Specjalny, L.dz./tjn.,
May , Oddzial VI, sygn. .... (); Sztab Naczelnego Wodza, Oddzial Specjalny,
L.dz./Tjn., London, January , Oddzial VI, sygn. .... (), SPPL. See
also Stefan Korbonski, The Polish Underground State, New York: Columbia University
Press, , ; Mykola Syvits’kyi, “Pol’s’ko-ukrainskyi konflikt – rr.,” in
Pol’s’ko—Ukrains’ki studii, Kyiv: Lybid’, , –; Agnieszka Cies´lowska, Prasa
okupowanego Lwowa, Warsaw: Neriton, –.
. One of the division’s soldiers is clear on this point: II/, AWKW. Conversations with
other veterans have confirmed me in this view.
. Michal Klimecki, “Geneza i organizacja polskiej samoobrony na Wolyniu i w Mal-
opolsce Wschodnej podczas II wojny s´wiatowej,” in Polska—Ukraina: Trudne pytania,
Vol. , Warsaw: Karta, , ; Roman Strilka, “Geneza polskiej samoobrony na
Wolyniu i jej roli w obronie ludnos´ci polskiej,” in ibid., ; Litopys UPA, Vol. , –.
. Political Resolution , Third Extraordinary Congress of the OUN, – August ,
in OUN v svitli postanov Velykykh Zboriv, –.
. For respective examples, see II//k and II/, AWKW.
Notes to Pages 170 –174
326
. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation, .
. For a sense of the density, see Litopys UPA, Vol. (new series), –, –. The
argument adapts Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication, Cambridge,
Mass.: M.I.T. Press, .
. Waldemar Lotnik, Nine Lives, London: Serif, , .
. Villages in the area later petitioned Khrushchev to be joined to the USSR. Etnichni
mezhi i derzhavnyi kordon Ukrainy, –.
. The estimate from Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach. For Ukrainian recollections and
lists of victims, Dzieje Konfliktów, Vol. , –.
. “Niemcy a UPA: Dokumenty,” .
. For estimates, Gregorz Hryciuk, “Straty ludnos´ci w Galicji Wschodniej w latach –
,” Polska—Ukraina: Trudne pytania, Vol. , Warsaw: Karta, , ; see also Ryszard
Kotarba, “Zbrodnie nacjonalistów ukrain´skich w województwie tarnopolskim,” ibid.,
. For recollections of the Galician cleansing see II/, II//j, II//p, II//t,
II//kw, II//kw, AWKW. See also Il’iushyn, OUN-UPA i ukrains’ke pytannia,
.
. Sadovyi, “Kudy priamuiut’ poliaky?” Litopys UPA, Vol. , , .
. Hryciuk, Polacy w Lwowie, –.
. Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, –; Povstans’ki mohyly, –.
. Korbonski, Underground State, –; Wladyslaw Filar, “ WDP AK w Operacji
Kowelskiej,” Przegla˛d Wschodni, , (), ‒.
. Serhii Tkachov, Pol’s’ko-Ukrains’kii transfer naselennia –rr, Ternopil’: Pidruch-
nyky i Posibnyky, , –.
. NKWD o Polsce i Polakach; Vostochnaia Evropa, Vol. , and passim; Teczka specjalna
J. W. Stalina, , , and passim.
CHAPTER 9. THE ETHNIC CLEANSING OF SOUTHEASTERN POLAND (1945–1947)
. “Zagadnienie Ukrain´skie,” BUWR, syg. ; Dzieje Konfliktów, Vol. , –, –
, , –, , –; Ryszard Torzecki, “Kontakty polsko-ukrain´skie w poli-
tyce polskiego rza˛du emigracyjnego i podziemia (–), Dzieje Najnowsze, , ‒
(), –. On the interwar background, Wlodzimierz Mich, Obcy w polskim
domu, Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Sklodowskiej, .
. Krystyna Kersten, “The Polish—Ukrainian Conflict under Communist Rule,” Acta
Poloniae Historica, , (), . See also Wlodzimierz Borodziej, Od Poczdamu do
Szklarskiej Pore˛by, London: Aneks, , –.
. Grabski left the National Democratic party in . He was, however, one of the most
eminent thinkers in the National Democratic tradition, and remained very influential
on the Polish right.
. For a Soviet record of Grabski’s remarks to Stalin in August , Sovetskii faktor, –.
The quotations from those conversations are from Stanislaw Grabski, Pamie˛tniki, Vol. ,
Warsaw: Czytelnik, , –.
. On Wasilewska, Eleonora Syzdek, Dzialalnos´c´ Wandy Wasilewskiej w latach Drugiej Wo-
jny S
´
wiatowej, Warsaw: MON, , “Dialectic” quotation at ; treaty reference at .
Notes to Pages 174–181
327
See also Teresa Toran´ska, Them, New York: Harper & Row, , –. Wasilewska
was also a novelist.
. On Grabski in Lwów in September , Teczka specjalna J. W. Stalina, . For Wasi-
lewska’s opinion of Grabski and further analysis of Grabski’s mission, Witold Wojdylo,
Koncepcje spo¬eczno-polityczne Stanis¬awa Grabskiego, Torun: Uniwersytet Mikolaja Ko-
pernika, , –.
. Key examples of the genre are Andrzej Paczkowski, Pó¬ wieku dziejów Polski, Warsaw,
PWN, ; Krystyna Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, Berke-
ley: University of California Press, .
. Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, , .
. Serguei Ekelchik, “History, Culture, and Nationhood under High Stalinism,” Doctoral
dissertation, University of Alberta, , –.
. See the reports collected in Deportatsiia poliakiv z Ukrainy, , –.
. The March report of Khrushchev to Stalin in OUN-UPA v roky viiny, –.
The OUN-Bandera was not satisfied by the border, but even it had to struggle to portray
territorial gains in negative terms. “Ukrains’kyi perets,” September , in Litopys UPA,
Vol. (new series), –.
. Vostochnaia Evropa, .
. Grabski, Pamie˛tniki, Vol. , –.
. Sovetskii faktor, –, , ; Vojtech Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War, New York:
Columbia University Press, .
. Andrzej Paczkowski, Stanis¬aw Miko¬ajczyk czyli kle˛ska realisty, Warsaw: Omnipress, .
. The Bialystok region remained in Poland this time.
. Ivan Kozlovs’kyi, Vstanovlennia Ukrains’ko-Pols’koho kordonu, L’viv: Kameniar, .
. Sovetskii faktor, ; see also Vostochnaia Evropa, ; Norman Naimark, Fires of Hatred,
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, , –.
. Czechoslovak-Hungarian transfers were carried out, on a small scale. Hungary’s prefer-
ences: Sovetskii faktor, , –; Molotov’s urgings: Vostochnaia Evropa, –;
; Stalin on northeastern Europe: Sovetskii faktor, ; Stalin on southeastern Europe:
Vostochnaia Evropa, –, ; Sovetskii faktor, ; for what happened next, Ivo Ba-
nac, With Stalin against Tito, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, .
. What had been Czechoslovak Sub-Carpathian Rus’ was incorporated into Soviet Ukraine,
Stalin providing an ethnic justification.
. Sovetskii faktor, .
. Terry Martin, “Stalinist Forced Relocation Policies,” in Myron Weiner and Sharon Rus-
sell, eds., Moving Targets: Demography and Security, Cambridge: Berghahn Books, .
The dissolution of Polish institutions in – marked a new awareness of the Poles as
a national enemy to the Soviet Union, but the result was not the deportation of every
Polish individual. Even the – “Polish operations” affected others besides Poles,
and were meant to destroy rather than consolidate a national group. In both cases, Poles
remained Soviet citizens and remained in the Soviet Union. N. V. Petrov and A. B. Ro-
ginskii, “Pol’skaia operatsiia NKVD – gg., in Repressii protiv poliakov i pol’skykh
grazhdan, Moscow: Memorial, , .
Notes to Pages 181–185
328
. Terry Martin, “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing,” Journal of Modern History,
(), –. See also Robert Conquest, The Nation Killers, London, Macmillan,
.
. Consult Rogers Brubaker, “Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union
and post-Soviet Eurasia,” Theory and Society, (), –; Yuri Slezkine, “The
USSR as Communal Apartment,” Slavic Review, , (), –; Francine Hirsh,
“The Soviet Union as a Work in Progress,” Slavic Review, , (), –; Ronald
Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, .
Some of the constructivist account of nationality in the early Soviet Union is anticipated
in Hans Kohn, Nationalism in the Soviet Union, London: Routledge, . The locus
classicus is Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, Cambridge, Mass.: Har-
vard University Press, .
. Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, Vol. , Oxford: Oxford University Press,
, –.
. On the Famine, Andrea Graziosi, The Great Soviet Peasant War, Cambridge, Mass.:
Ukrainian Research Institute, , –; Terry Martin, “The – Ukrainian Ter-
ror,” presentation at Ukrainian Research Institute, Cambridge, Mass., February ;
also Terry Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, .
. For cases of this, Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, , –, –.
. Ibid., –.
.Gomulka cited in Piotr Madajczyk, “Polska polityka narodowos´ciowa po roku,”
Nashe Slovo (Warsaw), August . The day before Gomulka’s speech, a local party
organ published a poem entitled “Poland: Only for the Poles.” Gazeta Robotnicza (Ka-
towice), May , in Dariusz Baliszewski and Andrzej Kunert, eds., Ilustrowany prze-
wodnik po Polsce stalinowskiej, Warsaw: PWN , .
.II//p, II/, II/kw, II//k, AWKW. See also “Biuleteny—No. ,”
Zwia˛zki Ziem Wschodnich Rzeczypospolitej, September , zesz. A..V., tecz, ,
MSW, AMPN. For figures, Deportatsii, Vol. , .
. Compare Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, – and –.
. On the UPA, Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci polskiej, . The NKVD lost important agents when
Poles left the the Soviet Union. Jeffrey Burds, “AGENTURA: Soviet Informants’ Net-
works and the Ukrainian Rebel Underground in Galicia,” East European Politics and So-
cieties, , (), –; and Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, , , , –.
. Deportatsii poliakiv z Ukrainy, ; Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, .
. These Polish officials were themselves pawns in a much larger game. They were treated
ruthlessly by the Soviet NKVD, often arrested and imprisoned. Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci
polskiej, –.
. Tkachov, Pol’s’ko-Ukrains’kyi transfer naselennia –, –; Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci
polskiej, – and passim.
. Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci polskiej, .
. Ibid., .
. Within the borders envisioned by the agreement of July , six hundred thousand or
so speakers of Ukrainian constituted less than percent of the Polish population. Repa-
Notes to Pages 185–189
329
triacja, Vol. , –. A week before the secret agreement, Khrushchev wrote to Stalin
asking that territories around Chelm/Kholm be added to the Ukrainian SSR. This
would have brought Khrushchev’s wife’s birthplace into the Soviet Union.
. In these regions Soviet authorities noted the nationalism of the Poles they installed. Tra -
hedia Ukraintsiv Pol’shchi, –; Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, .
.II/p., AWKW; “Informacja z prasy ukrain´skiej nr. ,” zesz. A..V., tecz. , MSW,
AMPN; also the appeals cited below.
. Quotation from Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, . On re-repatriants, Repatriacja,
Vol. , , , ; Deportatsii, Vol. , .
. Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, ; Repatriacja, Vol. , , .
. Repatriacja, Vol. , .
. Ibid., –.
. Ibid., –, , –; estimates from Rafal Wnuk, “Wierzchowiny i Huta” Polska
/, (), ; and Grzegorz Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, Warsaw: Volumen,
, –.
. Repatriacja, Vol. , –.
. Antoni Szczes´niak and Wieslaw Szota, Droga do nika˛d, Warsaw: MON, , . This
extremely useful study suffers from a weakness associated with its publication in People’s
Poland. Despite the evidence the book presents, the authors reduce Ukrainian national-
ism to a variety of Nazism. There are reasons why this assertion is plausible, but it is im-
possible to understand the motivations of Ukrainian partisans in Poland without liber-
ating oneself from it.
. On the Lemko region see : Propam’iatna Knyha , , –, , . Almost all of
the respondents describe service in or perceptions of the UPA. The volume mentions
about local UPA soldiers by name. See also the biograms in Povstans’ki mohyly;
and the list of UPA soldiers sentenced to death in in UPA v svitli pols’kykh doku-
mentiv, –.
. Trahedia Ukraintsiv Pol’shchi, . For Ukrainian recollections, : Propam’iatna Knyha,
, , , .
. Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, –.
. According to the biograms of UPA soldiers collected by Misylo, had served in the
SS-Galizien, in the German police, in the Wehrmacht, and in the Ukrainian Le-
gions. Given the limited nature of the information available to Misylo, it is certain that
these numbers were higher: Povstans’ki mohyly, –. For Ukrainian recollections of
SS-Galizien veterans joining the UPA, : Propam’iatna Knyha, –, ; also Ivan
Dmytryk, U lisakh Lemkivshchyny, Munich: Suchasnist, , .
. Povstans’ki mohyly, –, –, –.
. The UPA ran schools for recruits and officers on the territory of southeastern Poland,
teaching them that their plight was part of the larger national struggle. Szczes´niak and
Szota, Droga do nika˛d, –. Povstans’ki mohyly records, where such information is
available, that a given local recruit received such training.
. Deportatsii, Vol. , –.
. Order of UPA-West commander Vasyl’ Sydor, in Ukrainian Central State Archive in Kyiv,
//, cited after Grzegorz Motyka, “Ukrain´skie ‘powstanie’,” Karta, (), .
Notes to Pages 189–192
330
. Repatriacja, Vol. , –; Deportatsii, Vol. , –; Trahedia Ukraintsiv Pol’shchi,
–, –.
. On burning villages, : Propam’iatna Knyha, –; II/, AWKW. On engage-
ments with the army, Repatriacja, Vol. , –, –, –, Szczes´niak and
Szota, Droga do nika˛d, –; and Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, ff. For repa-
triation officials, Repatriacja, Vol. , .
. There was some cooperation against Soviet forces. Grzegorz Motyka and Rafal Wnuk,
Pany i rezuny, Warsaw: Volumen, , –. For UPA recollections of cooperation
with the AK, : Propam’iatna Knyha, , ; Povstans’ki mohyly, –; for Polish
reports, Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv, , .
. The meeting: Repatriacja, Vol. , –. For similar petitions, Pereselennia poliakiv ta
ukraintsiv, –.
. Stanislaw Grabski, Pan´stwo narodowe, L’viv: Igla, , , for the opposition between
“national state” and “state of nationalities.”
. Trahedia Ukraintsiv Pol’shchi, –.
. Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’ . Podgornyi was one of the troika that ousted Khrushchev in . His
given name was Mykola Pidhirnyi.
. On this incident, Repatriacja, Vol. , , , , .
. This estimate of resettlements is based upon the statistics provided in Akcja Wis¬a. See also
the survey of resettled Ukrainians in Halyna Shcherba, “Deportatsii naselennia z pol’s’ko-
ukrains’koho pohranychchia -kh rokiv.” in Pol’s’ko-Ukrains’ki studii, Kyiv: Lybid’, ,
. The estimate of Ukrainians killed from Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, .
. Sovetskii faktor, . Dmytro Manuil’s’kyi, the Comintern secretary, wrote to Politburo
member Lazar Kaganovich that the Ukrainian SSR should not accept more Ukrainians
from Poland, since the resettlement apparatus had been disbanded and there were no
longer funds available. Trahedia Ukraintsiv Pol’shchi, –. (Manuil’s’kyi, inciden-
tally, had been a negotiator at Riga, had watched over the Polish Communist Party be-
fore its dissolution, and knew Poland and spoke Polish well.)
. Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’ -.
. Ibid., . On S
´
wierczewski’s death, Tadeusz Pla˛skowski, “Ostatnia inspekcja Gen. broni
Karola S
´
wierczewskiego,” Wojskowy Przegla˛d Historyczny, (), –. The official
account is Polska Zbrojna, March , .
. On West Ukraine: Deportatsii, Vol. , –; Desiat’ buremnykh lit, ; Werth, “L’en-
vers d’une victoire,” in Stéphane Courtois, ed., Le livre noir du communisme, Paris:
Robert Laffont, , , .
. Vostochnaia Evropa, –. The figure in question was Wladyslaw Wolski, at the time
vice minister of public administration for repatriation affairs, in minister of public
administration.
. Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’ –, –.
. Ibid., .
. For a statement of OUN-Bandera goals, see the January “Prohramovi zasady
OUN,” in OUN-UPA v roky viiny, –. With Volhynia and most of Galicia now
within the Soviet Union, the territory in question was the bit of Galicia which remained
in Poland (in the Rzeszów palatinate) and parts of the Lublin and Cracow palatinates.
Notes to Pages 192–197
331
. Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’ –.
. Ibid., .
. I take exception to the argument that resettlement was nothing more than part of a plan
to destroy the UPA. This is the view taken in the most comprehensive study of these
years. Szczes´niak and Szota, Droga do nika˛d. Tadeusz Piotrowski also takes the view I
wish to question in Poland’s Holocaust, Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., , ,
. I am also disagreeing with the opposing view, that the operation had nothing to do
with the UPA. The idea that Polish policy would have been exactly the same, and would
have enjoyed the same popularity, if the UPA had not existed is not plausible. It is thus
odd to discuss “The Tragedy of the Ukrainians of Poland” without mentioning the
slaughter in Volhynia. Trahedia Ukraintsiv Pol’shchi.
. One Pole recalled the unfairness of treating Lemkos as traitors: II/, AWKW. On
Kennkarten, Kersten, “The Polish-Ukrainian Conflict,” .
. Kossowski returned to the Soviet Union in October . See his “Sluzhebnaia kharak-
teristika,” October ; and “Charakterystyka—Sluz˙ bowa,” March , teczka
personalna pplk. Waclawa Kossowskiego, CAWR.
. Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, .
. Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’ . For a criticism of Mossor’s tactics by his second-in-command, see
Lech Kowalski, Genera¬owie, Warsaw: Pax, , –.
. Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’ –, –, –. On security services, John Micgiel, “Bandits
and Reactionaries,” in Norman Naimark and Leonid Gibianskii, eds., The Establish-
ment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, Boulder, Colo.: Westview, , –;
Andrzej Paczkowski, Od sfa¬szowanego zwycie˛stwa do prawdziwej kle˛ski, Cracow: Wydaw-
nictwo Literackie, , .
. Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, ‒ . Of the UPA deaths chronicled by
Misylo, or . percent are listed as suicides. Povstans’ki mohyly, –.
. Perhaps thirty to fifty thousand Ukrainians and Lemkos escaped resettlement: some by
bribing officers, others by hiding with Polish families, others by claiming Polish identity,
and perhaps a thousand or so by successfully mobilizing local authorities to protect them
(Bodaky, Blechnarka, Wysowa). (Conversations in Lemkowszczyzna, – July ).
Sometimes the leaders of Operation Groups, at their own discretion and in violation of
orders, allowed couples in mixed marriages, Red Army veterans, as well as Ukrainians
employed by the railway and in mining, to remain.
. : Propam’iatna Knyha, , , , –; Nashe Slovo (Warsaw), March , ;
March , ; Leszek Wolosiuk, “Historia jednej fotografii,” in Wlodzimierz Mokry,
Problemy Ukrain´ców w Polsce po wysiedlen´czej akcji “Wis¬a” roku, Cracow: Szwajpolt
fiol, , –.
. more were sentenced to death in the Jaworzno camp. According to one calculation, of
the , death sentences between –, were of Ukrainians. Given that Ukrai-
nians comprised less than percent of the population, this proportion is high indeed.
Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’ . Misylo has collected relevant documents in UPA v svitli pols’kykh doku-
mentiv. On Ukrainians executed before , Maria Turlejska, Te pokolenia z˙ a¬obami
czarne, London: Aneks, , –. For a list of Ukrainians who perished in con-
nection with resettlement, Repatriacja, Vol. , –.
Notes to Pages 197–200
332
. Polish procurator’s report of treatment of Ukrainian prisoners in the Jaworzno concen-
tration camp reprinted in Nashe Slovo (Warsaw), January , , . See also Mokry,
Problemy Ukrain´ców w Polsce, –; : Propam’iatna Knyha, –, –; Jan
Popiel, ed., “Rozmowy przeprowadzone w Dobrej,” unpublished, ; and finally the
memoir of a Polish woman, returnee from Siberia, held on the accusation of sheltering a
UPA soldier from the Red Army: II/, AWKW.
. The end of UPA activity in Poland is dated from September , when OUN com-
mander Iaroslav Starukh perished in his bunker. UPA commander Myroslav Onyshke-
vich then released his soldiers from their oaths. In late , three small Operation
Groups were formed to rout partisans who continued to fight, and over the next few
years the army continued to resettle Ukrainians who had escaped or been passed over. In
all about , Ukrainians were resettled from to .
. On the UPA in Soviet Ukraine: Grzegorz Motyka, “Bieszczadzkie sotnie UPA na
Ukrainie –,” Nashe Slovo (Warsaw), February , ; Burds, “Agentura,”
–; Peter Potichnyj, “Pacification of Ukraine: Soviet Counterinsurgency,” ;
Desiat’ buremnykh lit; D.M. Stickles, ed., The Beria Affair, New York: Nova Science,
, and . On Lebed’: Christopher Simpson, Blowback, New York: Weidenfeld
and Simpson, , –.
CHAPTER 10. EPILOGUE: COMMUNISM AND CLEANSED MEMORIES (1947–1981)
. Piotr Eberhardt, Mie˛dzy Rosja˛ a Niemcami, Warsaw: PWN, , , .
. German, Romani, and Czech were also spoken. Most Gypsies were also murdered by the
Nazi regime. Most of the Germans of Volhynia and Galicia fled or were expelled at war’s
end. Many Czechs were killed, and about , survivors emigrated. On interwar Ger-
man settlement, Hans-Jörgen Seraphim, Rodungssiedler, Berlin: Paul Parey, . Post-
war Western Ukraine also embraces Subcarpathian Ruthenia, formerly in Czechoslova-
kia, and part of Bukovina, formerly in Romania.
. Volodymyr Kubiiovych, Natsional’nyi sklad naselennia Radianskoi Ukrainy v svitli soviet-
s’kykh perepisiv, Paris, , –.
. These last two figures estimated on the basis of Shmuel Spector, Holocaust of Volhynian
Jews, Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, , ‒; Dieter Pohl, Nationsozialistische Judenver-
folgung in Ostgalizien, Munich: Oldenbourg, , –; and Piotr Eberhardt, Pol-
ska ludnos´c´ kresowa, Warsaw: PWN, , . The other calculations are based on the
sources cited in the previous two chapters and Soviet census data from . One reason
so few Jews survived in Volhynia is that almost none were deported during the Soviet oc-
cupation. Spector puts the number at five hundred ().
. See the anthropological research of Grzegorz Babin´ski, Pogranicze polsko-ukrain´skie,
Cracow: Nomos, , ; surveys analyzed by the sociologist Antonina Kloskowska,
Kultury narodowe u korzeni, Warsaw: PWN, , –; see also the assessment of the
political scientist John Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, Englewood, N.J.: Ukrainian
Academic Press, .
. Conversations at the Lemkovska Vatra (Lemko Congress), Zdynia, Poland, July .
. Figures from Teczka specjalna J. W. Stalina, . See also Deportatsii, –.
Notes to Pages 200–204
333