The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3: Medieval Japan

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CHANGES IN ZEN PRACTICE 649

threatened Mongol invasions, the Zen monks, too, like the monks of

other schools of Japanese Buddhism, conducted frequent prayer cere-

monies for the country's delivery. These introduced esoteric rituals

into the monastic timetable and thus inevitably reduced the time that

could be devoted to

zazen

and

sanzen.

As the role of Chinese masters declined from the early fourteenth

century, Japanese influences, especially from Shingon Buddhism,

grew stronger in the

gozan.

Shingon practices had been incorporated

into the Rinzai Zen teaching of Muhon Kakushin and his followers,

but it was under the powerful influence of Muso Soseki that they

permeated

gozan

Zen monastic practice.

Muso's earliest religious training had been in Tendai and Shingon

Buddhism. He had begun his Zen practice under the Chinese monk I-

shan I-ning and had received recognition of his enlightenment after

studying with the Japanese monk Koho Kennichi. Koho, a member of

the imperial family, had a strong interest in esoteric Buddhism; Muso

never visited China, and thus it is not difficult to detect in his writings

an indifference to many of the contemporary trends in Chinese Ch'an

Buddhism and a receptivity to Japanese religious practices. In his

Muchu

mondo,

Muso argued that "although Zen teachings offered the

most direct way to grasp the root of enlightenment," esoteric prayers

and rituals provided a valuable expedient means

(hoben)

of attaining

the gateway to enlightenment, which could then be deepened by Zen

practice.

104

Muso's tolerance of Shingon practices had far-reaching

ramifications. Although there is no evidence that Muso himself con-

ducted such rituals - in

Muchii mondo

and elsewhere he warned that

their excessive use would dilute Zen practice - he associated with

Shingon monks and had among his "ten thousand disciples" many

monks who combined Zen and esoteric Buddhism. The esoteric Japa-

nese tone in the Zen teachings of Muso and his followers made them

particularly attractive to members of the court nobility as well as to

warriors. The readiness of

the

Muso school's monks to perform rituals

and prayer ceremonies for the welfare of

the

country, the recovery of

shogun from sickness, and for relief from drought or famine made the

gozan monasteries that much more useful as religious agents of the

bakufu.

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, many Zen monks

adopted the Pure Land practice of

nembutsu.

Some of

these

Pure Land

104 Muso Soseki, Muchu mondo, vol. 1, stage 15 in Sato Taishun, ed., Muchii mondo (Tokyo:

Iwanami shoten, 1934).

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

65O ZEN AND THE GOZAN

influences came from medieval Japanese religion, in which devotion to

Amida was a powerful current. Other influences came from China.

One branch of Ch'an Buddhism during the Yuan and Ming dynasties

combined an eremitic ideal with Pure Land devotion. A few Chinese

monks of this school found their way to Japan. But many more Japa-

nese monks who visited China in the fourteenth century adopted Pure

Land beliefs. Some gozan monks, like Nanko Sogan (1397-1463),

remained hostile to any accommodation with Pure Land. In a long

poem from which the following lines are taken, Nanko heaped scorn

on the practitioners of the dancing

nembutsu (odori nembutsu)

that had

become popular in Kyoto:

They suddenly leap up, arms nailing hands never at rest,

As mile after mile booms with empyrean thunderclaps.

Men dress in women's clothes, women imitate men,

In red kerchiefs, white caps, torn and tattered shifts,

Their mouths swell with cries of

"Namu Amida

Butsu!"

Till their "butsu-butsu-butsu" sounds like a pot bubbling over.'

Although he was less interested in Pure Land than in Shingon

Buddhism, Muso was tolerant of the

nembutsu

teaching, regarding it as

a means of approaching the deeper truth of Zen for those people who

were not yet ready to commit themselves fully to

zazen.

Many of his

followers thus recited the

nembutsu

as part of their daily Zen prac-

tice.

106

Just as the "pure Sung Zen monastic practice" of the Kamakura

period was colored by Japanese religious elements in the Muromachi

period, so too was the Chinese tone of

gozan

culture tinged by the

influence of Japanese aesthetics and literary taste. What we think of as

the typical Zen garden, using stones and moss instead of trees and

water, reflects a blending of the Ch'ar. monastic garden and Japanese

taste and garden design. Zen-inspired ink painting and portraiture,

based at first on Sung ideals, acquired a Japanese character at the

hands of Shubun and Sesshu. The tea ceremony, which had been

nurtured in Zen monasteries before it became a passion among mer-

chants and daimyo, saw the introduction of Japanese tastes and uten-

sils alongside prized Chinese ware.

In literature, too, Japanese influences were evident in

gozan

circles

from the fourteenth century. Muso's mentor Koho Kennichi com-

posed waka and had verses included in imperial anthologies. Muso

105 Translated by David Pollack, Zen Poems of the Five Mountains (Decatur, Ga.: Scholars Press,

1985)) P-80. 106 Tamamura.Af usoSoseki, pp. 137-43.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

CHANGES IN ZEN PRACTICE 651

himself seems to have been more at home with Japanese verse than

with Chinese poetry. Even Gido and Zekkai, who were acknowledged

masters of Chinese versification, were active participants in mixed

Japanese-Chinese renga gatherings with courtiers and high-ranking

samurai. They and other gozan monks read the Japanese literary clas-

sics and composed verses on Japanese themes, such as the following

reflection by Zekkai on the destruction of the Taira:

Akamagaseki:

The scene before me brings sorrow night and day,

A cold tide battering the Red Walls;

Among weird crags and fantastic boulders, a temple in the clouds,

Between the new moon and the setting sun, boats on the sea.

A hundred thousand valiant warriors have turned to empty silence,

Three thousand swordsmen are gone forever;

Heroes' bones rot in a soil of shields and lances -

Thinking of them, I lean on the balustrade, watch the white gulls.

107

Finally, looking back over the role of Zen in medieval society, what

have we seen? Most obviously, of course, the history of medieval Zen

involved the importation and growth of an institution that, by the

fifteenth century, embraced thousands of temples and tens of thou-

sands of monks, nuns, novices, and monastery servants. In the early

phase of its development, Zen encountered determined opposition

from monks belonging to the established schools of Japanese Bud-

dhism. It prevailed only with the backing of enthusiastic sponsors at

all levels of society. The various branches of the Zen schools reached

from Kyoto and Kamakura into almost every village in Japan. Zen

monastic landholdings were scattered throughout the country, and the

Zen monastic economy reflected the economic possibilities and prob-

lems of the age. Zen monks consorted with shoguns, emperors, shugo,

provincial warriors, sengoku daimyo, townspeople, artists and enter-

tainers, and peasants. They were among the spiritual pioneers and

leading educators of the time, spreading not only the Buddhist medita-

tion practice oizazen but also a broader understanding of Buddhism in

general and of Chinese and Japanese secular culture.

From the viewpoint of their secular patrons, Zen monks and monas-

teries played many roles. Apart from providing spiritual and cultural

guidance, monks served as diplomats and political advisers, offered

prayers for relief from famines, and conducted funeral services. Mon-

asteries trained the children of warrior families, contributed to family

107 Translated by David Pollack, Zen

Poems

the

Five

Mountains,

p. 105.

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

652 ZEN AND THE GOZAN

and local unity and stability, and in some cases made financial loans or

organized welfare projects. The

gozan

system, in particular, was seen

by the Ashikaga as conducive to national centralization and local sur-

veillance. But other Rinzai and Soto monasteries played similar roles

in daimyo domains. Responsive to these many demands, Zen monas-

teries became deeply enmeshed in the fabric of medieval society.

Medieval Zen was neither monolithic nor static. The

gozan

schools,

the Daitokuji and the Myoshinji, and Soto Zen all had their own

characteristics and followed different patterns of development. In

their diverse ways, however, they came to terms with the society in

which they ha,d taken root. The expansion of Soto Zen and the Daio

branches of Rinzai Zen was based on a deliberate effort to take Zen to

local warriors, peasants, and townspeople, even at the cost of diluting

the traditional Ch'an monastic ideal and the strict meditation practice

advocated by their founders. Under the patronage of the shogunate,

the gozan was better able to preserve its elite Chinese, meditation-

centered monastic ideal. But even the gozan monasteries were not

totally isolated from the cultural ebb and flow of medieval Japanese

society.

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