На английском языке. A report within IEA Heating and Cooling
Program – Task 7, 1986, 179 pages.
CSHPSS can meet a large fraction of the space and water heating load for buildings even in harsh northe climates, and they are already cost-competitive in some locations.
Solar costs of less than 20 $/MWh are possible where appropriate aquifers are available and low temperature distribution systems can be used. Solar fractions of as much as 15% can be achieved using unglazed collectors with heat pumps.
Large solar fractions, more than 80$, can be achieved by systems without heat pumps using stratified energy storage and high performance collectors. Minimum costs for these systems are about 40 $/MWh (Sweden) for low temperature distribution systems and 70-100 $/MWh for high temperature distribution systems.
Systems with heat pumps are generally more economical for solar fractions below about 70 percent. However, results from Sweden show that non-heat pump systems using collector modules designed and developed for large scale applications can match or exceed the cost effectiveness of heat pump systems over the entire range of solar fraction.
CSHPSS can meet a large fraction of the space and water heating load for buildings even in harsh northe climates, and they are already cost-competitive in some locations.
Solar costs of less than 20 $/MWh are possible where appropriate aquifers are available and low temperature distribution systems can be used. Solar fractions of as much as 15% can be achieved using unglazed collectors with heat pumps.
Large solar fractions, more than 80$, can be achieved by systems without heat pumps using stratified energy storage and high performance collectors. Minimum costs for these systems are about 40 $/MWh (Sweden) for low temperature distribution systems and 70-100 $/MWh for high temperature distribution systems.
Systems with heat pumps are generally more economical for solar fractions below about 70 percent. However, results from Sweden show that non-heat pump systems using collector modules designed and developed for large scale applications can match or exceed the cost effectiveness of heat pump systems over the entire range of solar fraction.