John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southe Gate, Chichester, West
Sussex PO19 8SQ, England 2005. - 687 p.
The book is intended to provide a practical guide to chemical process design and integration for undergraduate and postgraduate students of chemical engineering, practicing process designers and chemical engineers and applied chemists working in process development. For undergraduate studies, the text assumes basic knowledge of material and energy balances, fluid mechanics, heat and mass transfer phenomena and thermodynamics, together with basic spreadsheeting skills. Examples have been included throughout the text. Most of these examples do not require specialist software and can be solved using spreadsheet software. Finally, a number of exercises have been added at the end of each chapter to allow the reader to practice the calculation procedures.
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Nomenclature
The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration
Chemical Products
Formulation of the Design Problem
Chemical Process Design and Integration
The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design and Integration
Continuous and Batch Processes
New Design and Retrofit
Approaches to Chemical Process Design and Integration
Process Control
The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration – Summary
References
Process Economics
The Role of Process Economics
Capital Cost for New Design
Capital Cost for Retrofit
Annualized Capital Cost
Operating Cost
Simple Economic Criteria
Project Cash Flow and Economic Evaluation
Investment Criteria
Process Economics – Summary
Exercises
References
Optimization
Objective Functions
Single-variable Optimization
Multivariable Optimization
Constrained Optimization
Linear Programming
Nonlinear Programming
Profile Optimization
Structural Optimization
Solution of Equations using Optimization
The Search for Global Optimality
Summary – Optimization
Exercises
References
Thermodynamic Properties and Phase Equilibrium
Equations of State
Phase Equilibrium for Single Components
Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium
Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium
Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Activity Coefficient Models
Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Equations of State
Calculation of Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium
Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium
Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium Activity Coefficient Models
Calculation of Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium
Calculation of Enthalpy
Calculation of Entropy
Phase Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Properties – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Reactor I – Reactor Performance
Reaction Path
Types of Reaction Systems
Reactor Performance
Rate of Reaction
Idealized Reactor Models
Choice of Idealized Reactor Model
Choice of Reactor Performance
Choice of Reactor Performance – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Reactor II – Reactor Conditions
Reaction Equilibrium
Reactor Temperature
Reactor Pressure
Reactor Phase
Reactor Concentration
Biochemical Reactions
Catalysts
Choice of Reactor Conditions – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Reactor III – Reactor Configuration
Temperature Control
Catalyst Degradation
Gas–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid Reactors
Reactor Configuration
Reactor Configuration for Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed Reactions
Reactor Configuration from Optimization of a Superstructure
Choice of Reactor Configuration – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Separator for Heterogeneous Mixtures
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Separation
Settling and Sedimentation
Inertial and Centrifugal Separation
Electrostatic Precipitation
Filtration
Scrubbing
Flotation
Drying
Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Separator for Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures I – Distillation
Single-Stage Separation
Distillation
Binary Distillation
Total and Minimum Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures
Finite Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures
Choice of Operating Conditions
Limitations of Distillation
Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Distillation – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Separator for Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures II – Other Methods
Absorption and Stripping
Liquid–Liquid Extraction
Adsorption
Membranes
Crystallization
Evaporation
Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Other Methods – Summary
Exercises
References
Distillation Sequencing
Distillation Sequencing Using Simple Columns
Practical Constraints Restricting Options
Choice of Sequence for Simple Nonintegrated Distillation Columns
Distillation Sequencing Using Columns With More Than Two Products
Distillation Sequencing Using Thermal Coupling
Retrofit of Distillation Sequences
Crude Oil Distillation
Distillation Sequencing Using Optimization of a Superstructure
Distillation Sequencing – Summary
Exercises
References
Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation
Azeotropic Systems
Change in Pressure
Representation of Azeotropic Distillation
Distillation at Total Reflux Conditions
Distillation at Minimum Reflux Conditions
Distillation at Finite Reflux Conditions
Distillation Sequencing Using an Entrainer
Heterogeneous Azeotropic Distillation
Entrainer Selection
Trade-offs in Azeotropic Distillation
Multicomponent Systems
Membrane Separation
Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation – Summary
Exercises
References
Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Continuous Processes
The Function of Process Recycles
Recycles with Purges
Pumping and Compression
Simulation of Recycles
The Process Yield
Optimization of Reactor Conversion
Optimization of Processes Involving a Purge
Hybrid Reaction and Separation
Feed, Product and Intermediate Storage
Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Continuous Processes – Summary
Exercises
References
Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Batch Processes
Batch Processes
Batch Reactors
Batch Separation Processes
Gantt Charts
Production Schedules for Single Products
Production Schedules for Multiple Products
Equipment Cleaning and Material Transfer
Synthesis of Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes
Optimization of Batch Processes
Storage in Batch Processes
Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks I – Heat Transfer Equipment
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients
Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drops for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Temperature Differences in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Allocation of Fluids in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Extended Surface Tubes
Retrofit of Heat Exchangers
Condensers
Reboilers and Vaporizers
Other Types of Heat Exchange Equipment
Fired Heaters
Heat Transfer Equipment – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks II – Energy Targets
Composite Curves
The Heat Recovery Pinch
Threshold Problems
The Problem Table Algorithm
Nonglobal Minimum Temperature Differences
Process Constraints
Utility Selection
Fuaces
Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power Generation)
Integration Of Heat Pumps
Heat Exchanger Network Energy Targets – Summary
Exercises
References
Chapter Heat Exchanger Networks III – Capital and Total Cost Targets
Number of Heat Exchange Units
Heat Exchange Area Targets
Number-of-shells Target
Capital Cost Targets
Total Cost Targets
Heat Exchanger Network and Utilities Capital and Total Costs – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks IV – Network Design
The Pinch Design Method
Design for Threshold Problems
Stream Splitting
Design for Multiple Pinches
Remaining Problem Analysis
Network Optimization
The Superstructure Approach to Heat Exchanger Network Design
Retrofit of Heat Exchanger Networks
Addition of New Heat Transfer Area in Retrofit
Heat Exchanger Network Design – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks V – Stream Data
Process Changes for Heat Integration
The Trade-Offs Between Process Changes, Utility Selection, Energy Cost and Capital Cost
Data Extraction
Heat Exchanger Network Stream Data – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Integration of Reactors
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Reactors
Appropriate Placement of Reactors
Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Reactors
Evolving Reactor Design to Improve Heat Integration
Heat Integration of
Reactors – Summary
Reference
Heat Integration of Distillation Columns
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation
The Appropriate Placement of Distillation
Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Distillation
Evolving the Design of Simple Distillation Columns to Improve Heat Integration
Heat Pumping in Distillation
Capital Cost Considerations
Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation Sequences
Heat-integrated Distillation Sequences Based on the Optimization of a Superstructure
Heat Integration of Distillation Columns – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Evaporators
Appropriate Placement of Evaporators
Evolving Evaporator Design to Improve Heat Integration
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Dryers
Evolving Dryer Design to Improve Heat Integration
Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers – Summary
Exercises
References
Steam Systems and Cogeneration
Boiler Feedwater Treatment
Steam Boilers
Steam Turbines
Gas Turbines
Steam System Configuration
Steam and Power Balances
Site Composite Curves
Cogeneration Targets
Optimization of Steam Levels
Site Power-to-heat Ratio
Optimizing Steam Systems
Steam Costs
Choice of Driver
Steam Systems and Cogeneration – Summary
Exercises
References
Cooling and Refrigeration Systems
Cooling Systems
Recirculating Cooling Water Systems
Targeting Minimum Cooling Water Flowrate
Design of Cooling Water Networks
Retrofit of Cooling Water Systems
Refrigeration Cycles
Process Expanders
Choice of Refrigerant for Compression Refrigeration
Targeting Refrigeration Power for Compression Refrigeration
Heat Integration of Compression Refrigeration Processes
Mixed Refrigerants for Compression Refrigeration
Absorption Refrigeration
Indirect Refrigeration
Cooling Water and Refrigeration Systems – Summary
Exercises
References
Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions
Atmospheric Pollution
Sources of Atmospheric Pollution
Control of Solid Particulate Emissions to Atmosphere
Control of VOC Emissions to Atmosphere
Control of Sulfur Emissions
Control of Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions
Control of Combustion Emissions
Atmospheric Dispersion
Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions – Summary
Exercises
References
Water System Design
Aqueous Contamination
Primary Treatment Processes
Biological Treatment Processes
Tertiary Treatment Processes
Water Use
Targeting Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants
Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants
Targeting and Design for Maximum Water Reuse Based on Optimization of a Superstructure
Process Changes for Reduced Water Consumption
Targeting Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants
Design for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants
Regeneration of Wastewater
Targeting and Design for Effluent Treatment and Regeneration Based on Optimization of a Superstructure
Data Extraction
Water System Design – Summary
Exercises
References
Inherent Safety
Fire
Explosion
Toxic Release
Intensification of Hazardous Materials
Attenuation of Hazardous Materials
Quantitative Measures of Inherent Safety
Inherent Safety – Summary
Exercises
References
Clean Process Technology
Sources of Waste from Chemical Production
Clean Process Technology for Chemical Reactors
Clean Process Technology for Separation and Recycle Systems
Clean Process Technology for Process Operations
Clean Process Technology for Utility Systems
Trading off Clean Process Technology Options
Life Cycle Analysis
Clean Process Technology – Summary
Exercises
References
Overall Strategy for Chemical Process Design and Integration
Objectives
The Hierarchy
The Final Design
Appendix A Annualization of Capital Cost
Appendix B Gas Compression
Reciprocating Compressors
Centrifugal Compressors
Staged Compression
Appendix C Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop in Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers
Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Correlations for the Tube-Side
Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Correlations for the Shell-Side
References
Appendix D The Maximum Thermal Effectiveness for 1–2 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers
Appendix E Expression for the Minimum Number of 1–2 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit
Appendix F Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Area Target
Appendix G Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Number of Shells Target
Minimum Area Target for Networks of 1–2 Shells
References
Appendix H Algorithm for Heat Exchanger Network Capital Cost Targets
Index
The book is intended to provide a practical guide to chemical process design and integration for undergraduate and postgraduate students of chemical engineering, practicing process designers and chemical engineers and applied chemists working in process development. For undergraduate studies, the text assumes basic knowledge of material and energy balances, fluid mechanics, heat and mass transfer phenomena and thermodynamics, together with basic spreadsheeting skills. Examples have been included throughout the text. Most of these examples do not require specialist software and can be solved using spreadsheet software. Finally, a number of exercises have been added at the end of each chapter to allow the reader to practice the calculation procedures.
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Nomenclature
The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration
Chemical Products
Formulation of the Design Problem
Chemical Process Design and Integration
The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design and Integration
Continuous and Batch Processes
New Design and Retrofit
Approaches to Chemical Process Design and Integration
Process Control
The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration – Summary
References
Process Economics
The Role of Process Economics
Capital Cost for New Design
Capital Cost for Retrofit
Annualized Capital Cost
Operating Cost
Simple Economic Criteria
Project Cash Flow and Economic Evaluation
Investment Criteria
Process Economics – Summary
Exercises
References
Optimization
Objective Functions
Single-variable Optimization
Multivariable Optimization
Constrained Optimization
Linear Programming
Nonlinear Programming
Profile Optimization
Structural Optimization
Solution of Equations using Optimization
The Search for Global Optimality
Summary – Optimization
Exercises
References
Thermodynamic Properties and Phase Equilibrium
Equations of State
Phase Equilibrium for Single Components
Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium
Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium
Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Activity Coefficient Models
Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Equations of State
Calculation of Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium
Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium
Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium Activity Coefficient Models
Calculation of Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium
Calculation of Enthalpy
Calculation of Entropy
Phase Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Properties – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Reactor I – Reactor Performance
Reaction Path
Types of Reaction Systems
Reactor Performance
Rate of Reaction
Idealized Reactor Models
Choice of Idealized Reactor Model
Choice of Reactor Performance
Choice of Reactor Performance – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Reactor II – Reactor Conditions
Reaction Equilibrium
Reactor Temperature
Reactor Pressure
Reactor Phase
Reactor Concentration
Biochemical Reactions
Catalysts
Choice of Reactor Conditions – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Reactor III – Reactor Configuration
Temperature Control
Catalyst Degradation
Gas–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid Reactors
Reactor Configuration
Reactor Configuration for Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed Reactions
Reactor Configuration from Optimization of a Superstructure
Choice of Reactor Configuration – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Separator for Heterogeneous Mixtures
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Separation
Settling and Sedimentation
Inertial and Centrifugal Separation
Electrostatic Precipitation
Filtration
Scrubbing
Flotation
Drying
Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Separator for Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures I – Distillation
Single-Stage Separation
Distillation
Binary Distillation
Total and Minimum Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures
Finite Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures
Choice of Operating Conditions
Limitations of Distillation
Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Distillation – Summary
Exercises
References
Choice of Separator for Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures II – Other Methods
Absorption and Stripping
Liquid–Liquid Extraction
Adsorption
Membranes
Crystallization
Evaporation
Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Other Methods – Summary
Exercises
References
Distillation Sequencing
Distillation Sequencing Using Simple Columns
Practical Constraints Restricting Options
Choice of Sequence for Simple Nonintegrated Distillation Columns
Distillation Sequencing Using Columns With More Than Two Products
Distillation Sequencing Using Thermal Coupling
Retrofit of Distillation Sequences
Crude Oil Distillation
Distillation Sequencing Using Optimization of a Superstructure
Distillation Sequencing – Summary
Exercises
References
Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation
Azeotropic Systems
Change in Pressure
Representation of Azeotropic Distillation
Distillation at Total Reflux Conditions
Distillation at Minimum Reflux Conditions
Distillation at Finite Reflux Conditions
Distillation Sequencing Using an Entrainer
Heterogeneous Azeotropic Distillation
Entrainer Selection
Trade-offs in Azeotropic Distillation
Multicomponent Systems
Membrane Separation
Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation – Summary
Exercises
References
Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Continuous Processes
The Function of Process Recycles
Recycles with Purges
Pumping and Compression
Simulation of Recycles
The Process Yield
Optimization of Reactor Conversion
Optimization of Processes Involving a Purge
Hybrid Reaction and Separation
Feed, Product and Intermediate Storage
Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Continuous Processes – Summary
Exercises
References
Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Batch Processes
Batch Processes
Batch Reactors
Batch Separation Processes
Gantt Charts
Production Schedules for Single Products
Production Schedules for Multiple Products
Equipment Cleaning and Material Transfer
Synthesis of Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes
Optimization of Batch Processes
Storage in Batch Processes
Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks I – Heat Transfer Equipment
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients
Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drops for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Temperature Differences in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Allocation of Fluids in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Extended Surface Tubes
Retrofit of Heat Exchangers
Condensers
Reboilers and Vaporizers
Other Types of Heat Exchange Equipment
Fired Heaters
Heat Transfer Equipment – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks II – Energy Targets
Composite Curves
The Heat Recovery Pinch
Threshold Problems
The Problem Table Algorithm
Nonglobal Minimum Temperature Differences
Process Constraints
Utility Selection
Fuaces
Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power Generation)
Integration Of Heat Pumps
Heat Exchanger Network Energy Targets – Summary
Exercises
References
Chapter Heat Exchanger Networks III – Capital and Total Cost Targets
Number of Heat Exchange Units
Heat Exchange Area Targets
Number-of-shells Target
Capital Cost Targets
Total Cost Targets
Heat Exchanger Network and Utilities Capital and Total Costs – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks IV – Network Design
The Pinch Design Method
Design for Threshold Problems
Stream Splitting
Design for Multiple Pinches
Remaining Problem Analysis
Network Optimization
The Superstructure Approach to Heat Exchanger Network Design
Retrofit of Heat Exchanger Networks
Addition of New Heat Transfer Area in Retrofit
Heat Exchanger Network Design – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Exchanger Networks V – Stream Data
Process Changes for Heat Integration
The Trade-Offs Between Process Changes, Utility Selection, Energy Cost and Capital Cost
Data Extraction
Heat Exchanger Network Stream Data – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Integration of Reactors
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Reactors
Appropriate Placement of Reactors
Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Reactors
Evolving Reactor Design to Improve Heat Integration
Heat Integration of
Reactors – Summary
Reference
Heat Integration of Distillation Columns
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation
The Appropriate Placement of Distillation
Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Distillation
Evolving the Design of Simple Distillation Columns to Improve Heat Integration
Heat Pumping in Distillation
Capital Cost Considerations
Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation Sequences
Heat-integrated Distillation Sequences Based on the Optimization of a Superstructure
Heat Integration of Distillation Columns – Summary
Exercises
References
Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Evaporators
Appropriate Placement of Evaporators
Evolving Evaporator Design to Improve Heat Integration
The Heat Integration Characteristics of Dryers
Evolving Dryer Design to Improve Heat Integration
Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers – Summary
Exercises
References
Steam Systems and Cogeneration
Boiler Feedwater Treatment
Steam Boilers
Steam Turbines
Gas Turbines
Steam System Configuration
Steam and Power Balances
Site Composite Curves
Cogeneration Targets
Optimization of Steam Levels
Site Power-to-heat Ratio
Optimizing Steam Systems
Steam Costs
Choice of Driver
Steam Systems and Cogeneration – Summary
Exercises
References
Cooling and Refrigeration Systems
Cooling Systems
Recirculating Cooling Water Systems
Targeting Minimum Cooling Water Flowrate
Design of Cooling Water Networks
Retrofit of Cooling Water Systems
Refrigeration Cycles
Process Expanders
Choice of Refrigerant for Compression Refrigeration
Targeting Refrigeration Power for Compression Refrigeration
Heat Integration of Compression Refrigeration Processes
Mixed Refrigerants for Compression Refrigeration
Absorption Refrigeration
Indirect Refrigeration
Cooling Water and Refrigeration Systems – Summary
Exercises
References
Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions
Atmospheric Pollution
Sources of Atmospheric Pollution
Control of Solid Particulate Emissions to Atmosphere
Control of VOC Emissions to Atmosphere
Control of Sulfur Emissions
Control of Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions
Control of Combustion Emissions
Atmospheric Dispersion
Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions – Summary
Exercises
References
Water System Design
Aqueous Contamination
Primary Treatment Processes
Biological Treatment Processes
Tertiary Treatment Processes
Water Use
Targeting Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants
Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants
Targeting and Design for Maximum Water Reuse Based on Optimization of a Superstructure
Process Changes for Reduced Water Consumption
Targeting Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants
Design for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants
Regeneration of Wastewater
Targeting and Design for Effluent Treatment and Regeneration Based on Optimization of a Superstructure
Data Extraction
Water System Design – Summary
Exercises
References
Inherent Safety
Fire
Explosion
Toxic Release
Intensification of Hazardous Materials
Attenuation of Hazardous Materials
Quantitative Measures of Inherent Safety
Inherent Safety – Summary
Exercises
References
Clean Process Technology
Sources of Waste from Chemical Production
Clean Process Technology for Chemical Reactors
Clean Process Technology for Separation and Recycle Systems
Clean Process Technology for Process Operations
Clean Process Technology for Utility Systems
Trading off Clean Process Technology Options
Life Cycle Analysis
Clean Process Technology – Summary
Exercises
References
Overall Strategy for Chemical Process Design and Integration
Objectives
The Hierarchy
The Final Design
Appendix A Annualization of Capital Cost
Appendix B Gas Compression
Reciprocating Compressors
Centrifugal Compressors
Staged Compression
Appendix C Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop in Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers
Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Correlations for the Tube-Side
Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Correlations for the Shell-Side
References
Appendix D The Maximum Thermal Effectiveness for 1–2 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers
Appendix E Expression for the Minimum Number of 1–2 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit
Appendix F Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Area Target
Appendix G Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Number of Shells Target
Minimum Area Target for Networks of 1–2 Shells
References
Appendix H Algorithm for Heat Exchanger Network Capital Cost Targets
Index