Ahmed S.N. Physics and Engineering of Radiation Detection
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B.1 Threshold for Avalanche Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . 188
B.2 Quenching............................ 189
B.3 GasGain ............................ 190
3.5.C SpecialTypesofProportionalCounters ............ 190
C.1 BF
3
ProportionalCounter................... 190
C.2 HeliumProportionalCounters ................ 191
C.3 Multi-WireProportionalCounters .............. 191
3.6 Geiger-MuellerCounters......................... 191
3.6.A Current-VoltageCharacteristics................. 193
3.6.B DeadTime ............................ 194
3.6.C ChoiceofGas........................... 196
3.6.D Quenching............................. 197
D.1 InternalQuenching....................... 197
D.2 ExternalQuenching ...................... 197
3.6.E Advantages and Disadvantages of GM Counters . . . . . . . . 198
3.7 SourcesofErrorinGaseousDetectors ................. 198
3.7.A RecombinationLosses ...................... 198
3.7.B EffectsofContaminants ..................... 200
B.1 RadiativeCapture ....................... 201
B.2 DissociativeCapture...................... 201
B.3 CapturewithoutDissociation................. 202
3.7.C EffectsofSpaceChargeBuildup ................ 202
3.8 DetectorEfficiency ............................ 207
3.8.A Signal-to-NoiseRatio....................... 212
4 Liquid Filled Detectors 221
4.1 PropertiesofLiquids........................... 221
4.1.A Charge Pair Generation and Recombination . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.1.B DriftofCharges ......................... 226
B.1 DriftofElectrons........................ 226
B.2 DriftofIons........................... 227
4.2 LiquidIonizationChamber ....................... 229
4.2.A Applications of Liquid Filled Ion Chambers . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.3 LiquidProportionalCounters ...................... 230
4.3.A ChargeMultiplication ...................... 230
4.4 CommonlyUsedLiquidDetectionMedia................ 233
4.5 Sources of Error in Liquid Filled Ionizing Detectors . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.5.A Recombination .......................... 234
4.5.B Parasitic Electron Capture and Trapping . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.6 CherenkovDetectors........................... 240
4.7 Bubble Chamber ............................. 242
4.8 Liquid Scintillator Detectors . . . . ................... 243
5 Solid State Detectors 249
5.1 Semiconductor Detectors . . . . . . ................... 249
5.1.A Structure of Semiconductors . . . . . . . ............ 250
5.1.B ChargeCarriersDistribution .................. 251
5.1.C Intrinsic, Compensated, and Extrinsic Semiconductors . . . . 251
5.1.D Doping .............................. 252
x
D.1 Doping with Acceptor Impurity . ............... 254
D.2 DopingwithDonorImpurity ................. 255
5.1.E Mechanism and Statistics of Electron-Hole Pair Production . 255
E.1 IntrinsicEnergyResolution .................. 260
E.2 Recombination ......................... 261
5.1.F Charge Conductivity . ...................... 264
F.1 DriftofElectronsandHoles.................. 265
5.1.G Materials Suitable for Radiation Detection . . . . . . . . . . 266
G.1 Silicon (Si) ........................... 267
G.2 Germanium (Ge)........................ 275
G.3 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) ................... 279
G.4 Cadmium-Zinc-Tellurium (CdZnTe)............. 283
5.1.H Thepn-Junction ......................... 284
H.1 CharacteristicsofaReverse-Biasedpn-Diode ........ 286
H.2 SignalGeneration ....................... 291
H.3 FrequencyResponse ...................... 294
5.1.I ModesofOperationofapn-Diode ............... 294
I.1 PhotovoltaicMode....................... 295
I.2 Photoconductive Mode . . . . . ............... 295
5.1.J DesirableProperties ....................... 297
J.1 HighRadiationFields ..................... 297
J.2 LowRadiationFields ..................... 297
5.1.K Specific Semiconductor Detectors . ............... 298
K.1 PINDiode ........................... 298
K.2 SchottkyDiode......................... 299
K.3 HeterojunctionDiode ..................... 300
K.4 AvalanchePhotodiode..................... 301
K.5 SurfaceBarrierDetector.................... 301
K.6 PositionSensitiveDetectors.................. 301
5.1.L Radiation Damage in Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
L.1 DamageMechanismandNIELScaling............ 302
L.2 LeakageCurrent ........................ 303
L.3 TypeInversion ......................... 304
L.4 DepletionVoltage ....................... 305
L.5 ChargeTrappingandCarrierLifetime ............ 305
L.6 Annealing............................ 305
5.2 DiamondDetectors............................ 306
5.2.A ChargePairProduction ..................... 307
5.2.B Recombination .......................... 307
5.2.C DriftofChargePairs....................... 308
5.2.D LeakageCurrent ......................... 310
5.2.E DetectorDesign ......................... 310
5.2.F RadiationHardness ....................... 311
5.2.G Applications ........................... 312
5.3 ThermoluminescentDetectors...................... 312
5.3.A PrincipleofThermoluminescence................ 313
6 Scintillation Detectors and Photodetectors 319
xi
6.1 Scintillation Mechanism and Scintillator Properties . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.1.A Basic Scintillation Mechanism . . . . . . ............ 320
6.1.B LightYield ............................ 322
6.1.C RiseandDecayTimes...................... 325
6.1.D Quenching............................. 327
D.1 SelfQuenching ......................... 327
D.2 ImpurityQuenching ...................... 327
D.3 ThermalQuenching ...................... 327
D.4 EnergyQuenching ....................... 328
6.1.E DensityandAtomicWeight................... 328
6.1.F Mechanical Properties and Stability . . ............ 328
6.1.G OpticalProperties ........................ 328
6.1.H PhosphorescenceorAfterglow.................. 329
6.1.I TemperatureDependence .................... 330
6.1.J RadiationDamage ........................ 332
6.1.K Scintillation Efficiency . . . ................... 333
6.2 Organic Scintillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 336
6.2.A Scintillation Mechanism . . ................... 336
6.2.B Plastic Scintillators . . . . . ................... 339
6.2.C Liquid Scintillators . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 345
6.2.D Crystalline Scintillators . . ................... 348
D.1 Anthracene (C
14
H
10
)...................... 349
D.2 P-Terphenyl (C
18
C
14
) ..................... 350
D.3 Stilbene (C
14
H
12
) ....................... 350
6.3 Inorganic Scintillators . . . . . . . ................... 350
6.3.A Scintillation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . ............ 351
A.1 ExcitonLuminescence ..................... 351
A.2 DopantLuminescence ..................... 352
A.3 CoreValenceBandLuminescence............... 352
6.3.B RadiationDamage ........................ 352
6.3.C Some Common Inorganic Scintillators . ............ 353
C.1 Thallium Doped Sodium Iodide (NaI:Tl) .......... 354
C.2 Sodium Doped Cesium Iodide (CsI:Na)........... 357
C.3 Thallium Doped Cesium Iodide (CsI:Tl) .......... 357
C.4 Bismuth Germanate (BGO).................. 357
C.5 Cadmium Tungstate (CWO) ................. 358
C.6 Lead Tungstate (PWO) ................... 358
C.7 Cerium Doped Gadolinium Silicate (GSO) ......... 358
C.8 Cerium Doped Lutetium Aluminum Garnet (LuAG:Ce) . . 358
C.9 Cerium Doped Yttrium Aluminum Perovskite (YAP:Ce) . 359
C.10LiquidXenon.......................... 359
6.4 Transfer of Scintillation Photons . . . . . . . . ............ 360
6.4.A TypesofLightGuides...................... 361
A.1 SimpleReflectionType .................... 361
A.2 TotalInternalReflectionType ................ 362
A.3 HybridLightGuides...................... 365
6.5 Photodetectors .............................. 366
6.5.A PhotomultiplierTubes...................... 367
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A.1 Photocathode.......................... 367
A.2 ElectronFocusingStructure.................. 372
A.3 ElectronMultiplicationStructure............... 373
A.4 VoltageDividerCircuit .................... 379
A.5 ElectronCollection....................... 379
A.6 SignalReadout......................... 380
A.7 Enclosure ............................ 380
A.8 Efficiency ............................ 382
A.9 Sensitivity............................ 384
A.10Gain............................... 386
A.11SpatialUniformity ....................... 388
A.12TimeResponse......................... 389
A.13FrequencyResponse ...................... 391
A.14EnergyResolution ....................... 393
A.15ModesofOperation ...................... 393
A.16NoiseConsiderations...................... 396
A.17NoiseinAnalogMode ..................... 397
A.18NoiseinDigitalMode ..................... 400
A.19EffectofMagneticField.................... 403
6.5.B PhotodiodeDetectors ...................... 403
6.5.C AvalanchePhotodiodeDetectors(APD)............ 405
C.1 BasicDesirableCharacteristics ................ 406
C.2 MultiplicationProcessandGainFluctuations........ 407
C.3 QuantumEfficiencyandResponsivity ............ 411
C.4 ModesofOperation ...................... 412
C.5 NoiseConsiderations...................... 413
C.6 RadiationDamage ....................... 415
7 Position Sensitive Detection and Imaging 423
7.1 Some Important Terminologies and Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
7.1.A SpatialResolution ........................ 423
A.1 Crosstalk ............................ 424
A.2 AliasingandAntialiasing ................... 424
A.3 Point Spread Function (PSF) ................ 431
A.4 Line Spread Function (LSF ) ................. 432
A.5 Edge Spread Function (ESF)................. 433
A.6 Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)............ 434
7.1.B Efficiency ............................. 437
B.1 QuantumEfficiency ...................... 437
B.2 Spatial Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE(f))...... 438
7.1.C Sensitivity............................. 439
7.1.D DynamicRange.......................... 439
7.1.E Uniformity ............................ 439
7.1.F TemporalLinearity........................ 440
7.1.G Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N)............. 440
7.2 PositionSensitiveDetection....................... 441
7.2.A TypesofPositionSensitiveDetectors.............. 441
A.1 ArrayDevices.......................... 441
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A.2 ScanningDevices........................ 441
A.3 TimingDevices......................... 441
7.2.B Multiwire Proportional Chambers (MWPCs) . . . . . . . . . 441
7.2.C MultiwireDriftChamber .................... 445
7.2.D MicrostripGasChambers .................... 445
7.2.E Semiconductor Microstrip Detectors (SMSDs) . . . . . . . . . 446
7.3 ImagingDevices ............................. 450
7.3.A ConventionalImaging ...................... 450
A.1 X-rayPhotographicFilms................... 450
A.2 ThermoluminescentDetectorArrays ............. 451
7.3.B ElectronicsImaging ....................... 451
7.3.C ChargedCoupledDevices .................... 452
7.3.D DirectImaging .......................... 452
D.1 PropertiesofaDirectImagingCCD ............. 453
D.2 DisadvantagesofDirectImaging ............... 455
7.3.E IndirectImaging ......................... 456
7.3.F MicrostripandMultiwireDetectors .............. 457
7.3.G Scintillating Fiber Detectors . . . . . . . ............ 457
8 Signal Processing 463
8.1 Preamplification ............................. 464
8.1.A VoltageSensitivePreamplifier.................. 465
8.1.B CurrentSensitivePreamplifier ................. 467
8.1.C ChargeSensitivePreamplifier.................. 468
C.1 ResistiveFeedbackMechanism ................ 471
C.2 PulsedResetMechanism ................... 472
8.2 SignalTransport ............................. 474
8.2.A TypeofCable .......................... 476
A.1 CoaxialCable.......................... 477
A.2 TwistedPairCable....................... 479
A.3 FlatRibbonCable....................... 479
8.3 PulseShaping............................... 480
8.3.A DelayLinePulseShaping .................... 480
8.3.B CR-RCPulseShaping...................... 481
B.1 Pole-ZeroCancellation..................... 485
B.2 BaselineShiftMinimization.................. 488
8.3.C Semi-GaussianPulseShaping.................. 488
8.3.D Semi-TriangularPulseShaping ................. 489
8.4 Filtering.................................. 490
8.4.A LowPassFilter.......................... 491
8.4.B HighPassFilter ......................... 493
8.4.C BandPassFilter ......................... 493
8.5 Amplification ............................... 493
8.6 Discrimination .............................. 494
8.6.A PulseCounting.......................... 495
A.1 SingleChannelAnalyzer(SCA)................ 496
A.2 MultiChannelAnalyzer(MCA) ............... 497
8.7 AnalogtoDigitalConversion ...................... 498
xiv
8.7.A A/D-ConversionRelatedParameters.............. 498
A.1 ConversionTime........................ 498
A.2 DeadTime ........................... 498
A.3 Resolution............................ 498
A.4 Nonlinearity........................... 499
A.5 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 499
8.7.B A/DConversionMethods .................... 500
B.1 DigitalRampADC....................... 500
B.2 SuccessiveApproximationADC................ 501
B.3 TrackingADC ......................... 501
B.4 WilkinsonADC......................... 502
B.5 FlashADC ........................... 505
8.7.C HybridADCs........................... 506
8.8 DigitalSignalProcessing......................... 506
8.8.A DigitalFilters........................... 508
8.9 ElectronicsNoise ............................. 509
8.9.A TypesofElectronicsNoise.................... 511
A.1 JohnsonNoise ......................... 511
A.2 ShotNoise ........................... 513
A.3 1/f Noise............................ 514
A.4 QuantizationNoise....................... 515
8.9.B NoiseinSpecificComponents.................. 516
B.1 NoiseinAmplifiers....................... 516
B.2 NoiseinADCs ......................... 518
8.9.C MeasuringSystemNoise..................... 519
8.9.D NoiseReductionTechniques................... 519
D.1 DetectorSignal......................... 520
D.2 FrequencyFilters........................ 520
9 Essential Statistics for Data Analysis 525
9.1 MeasuresofCentrality.......................... 526
9.2 MeasureofDispersion .......................... 528
9.3 Probability ................................ 528
9.3.A FrequentistApproach ...................... 529
9.3.B BayesianApproach........................ 529
9.3.C Probability Density Function . . . ............... 529
C.1 QuantitiesDerivablefromaP.D.F .............. 530
C.2 MaximumLikelihoodMethod................. 533
9.3.D SomeCommonDistributionFunctions............. 536
D.1 BinomialDistribution ..................... 536
D.2 PoissonDistribution ...................... 537
D.3 NormalorGaussianDistribution............... 539
D.4 Chi-Square (χ
2
)Distribution ................. 542
D.5 Student’s t Distribution .................... 543
D.6 GammaDistribution...................... 544
9.4 Confidence Intervals . . . . . ...................... 546
9.5 MeasurementUncertainty ........................ 548
9.5.A SystematicErrors ........................ 548
xv
9.5.B RandomErrors.......................... 549
9.5.C Error Propagation . . . . . ................... 549
C.1 AdditionofParameters .................... 550
C.2 MultiplicationofParameters ................. 550
9.5.D PresentationofResults ..................... 551
9.6 Confidence Tests ............................. 551
9.6.A Chi-Square (χ
2
)Test....................... 552
9.6.B Student’s t Test.......................... 553
9.7 Regression................................. 555
9.7.A SimpleLinearRegression .................... 555
9.7.B NonlinearRegression....................... 556
9.8 Correlation ................................ 558
9.8.A Pearson r orSimpleLinearCorrelation ............ 559
9.9 TimeSeriesAnalysis........................... 561
9.9.A Smoothing ............................ 562
9.10FrequencyDomainAnalysis....................... 563
9.11CountingStatistics............................ 565
9.11.A Measurement Precision and Detection Limits . . . . . . . . . 565
10 Software for Data Analysis 575
10.1StandardAnalysisPackages....................... 575
10.1.AROOT............................... 575
A.1 Availability . . . . . . . . ................... 576
A.2 Data Handling, Organization, and Storage . . . . . . . . . . 577
A.3 Data Analysis Capabilities . . . . . . ............ 579
A.4 Graphics Capabilities . . ................... 579
A.5 UsingROOT .......................... 580
A.6 Examples ............................ 582
10.1.B Origin
.............................. 586
B.1 Data Import Capabilities ................... 587
B.2 Graphics Capabilities . . ................... 588
B.3 Data Analysis Capabilities . . . . . . ............ 588
B.4 ProgrammingEnvironment .................. 589
B.5 Examples ............................ 589
10.1.C MATLAB
............................ 591
C.1 Toolboxes............................ 592
C.2 Data Acquisition and Import Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . 594
C.3 Data Analysis Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
C.4 Visualization Capabilities ................... 594
C.5 ProgrammingEnvironment .................. 595
C.6 Examples ............................ 595
10.2Custom-MadeDataAnalysisPackages ................. 597
10.2.ADataImport/ExportRoutines ................. 598
10.2.BDataAnalysisRoutines ..................... 599
10.2.CCodeGeneration ......................... 600
10.2.DResultDisplay .......................... 600
11 Dosimetry and Radiation Protection 603
11.1ImportanceofDosimetry ........................ 603
xvi
11.1.ADoseandDoseRate ....................... 604
11.2QuantitiesRelatedtoDosimetry .................... 604
11.2.ARadiationExposureandDose.................. 604
A.1 Roentgen (R).......................... 605
A.2 AbsorbedDose ......................... 605
A.3 EquivalentDose ........................ 605
A.4 EffectiveDose ......................... 607
11.2.BFluxorFluenceRate ...................... 609
11.2.CIntegratedFluxorFluence ................... 610
11.2.D Exposure and Absorbed Dose - Mathematical Definitions . . 611
11.2.EKerma,Cema,andTerma.................... 615
E.1 Kerma.............................. 615
E.2 Cema .............................. 618
E.3 Terma.............................. 618
11.2.FMeasuringKermaandExposure ................ 619
11.2.GCavityTheories.......................... 619
G.1 Bragg-Gray Cavity Theory . . . ............... 619
G.2 Spencer-AttixCavityTheory ................. 621
11.2.H LET and RBE .......................... 622
11.2.I BeamSize............................. 623
11.2.J InternalDose ........................... 624
J.1 InternalDosefromChargedParticles ............ 625
J.2 InternalDosefromThermalNeutrons ............ 625
11.3PassiveDosimetry ............................ 627
11.3.AThermoluminescentDosimetry ................. 627
A.1 WorkingPrincipleandGlowCurve.............. 628
A.2 CommonTLMaterials..................... 629
A.3 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofTLDosimeters...... 630
11.3.BOpticallyStimulatedLuminescenceDosimetry ........ 631
B.1 WorkingPrincipleandOSLCurve .............. 632
B.2 CommonOSLMaterials.................... 633
11.3.CFilmDosimetry.......................... 633
C.1 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofFilmDosimeters..... 634
C.2 CommonRadiochromaticMaterials ............. 634
11.3.DTrackEtchDosimetry ...................... 635
D.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Track Etch Dosimeters . 636
11.4ActiveDosimetry............................. 636
11.4.AIonChamberDosimetry..................... 636
A.1 FreeinAirIonChamberDosimetry ............. 637
A.2 CavityIonChamberDosimetry................ 639
11.4.BSolidStateDosimetry ...................... 642
B.1 MOSFETDosimeter...................... 643
B.2 DiamondDosimeter ...................... 645
11.4.C Plastic Scintillator Dosimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 646
11.4.DQuartzFiberElectroscope.................... 647
D.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Quartz Fiber Electroscope 647
11.5Microdosimetry.............................. 649
11.5.AMicrodosimetricQuantities ................... 649
xvii
A.1 LinearEnergyTransferandDose............... 649
A.2 SpecificEnergy......................... 650
A.3 LinealEnergy.......................... 650
11.5.BExperimentalTechniques .................... 651
B.1 Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (TEPC) . . . . . . 651
B.2 Solid State Nuclear Track Detector ((SSNTD) . . . . . . . 653
B.3 Silicon Microdosimeter . . . . . . . . . ............ 655
11.6BiologicalEffectsofRadiation...................... 656
11.6.AAcuteandChronicRadiationExposure ............ 657
A.1 AcuteExposure ........................ 658
A.2 ChronicExposure ....................... 659
11.6.BEffectsandSymptomsofExposure............... 660
B.1 SomaticEffectsofRadiation ................. 660
B.2 GeneticEffectsofRadiation.................. 660
11.6.CExposureLimits ......................... 660
11.7RadiationProtection........................... 662
11.7.AExposureReduction ....................... 662
A.1 Time............................... 662
A.2 Distance............................. 662
A.3 Shielding ............................ 664
12 Radiation Spectroscopy 673
12.1SpectroscopyofPhotons......................... 673
12.1.A γ-RaySpectroscopy ....................... 673
12.1.BCalibration ............................ 677
12.1.CX-raySpectroscopy........................ 678
C.1 X-rayAbsorptionSpectroscopy................ 678
C.2 X-rayPhotoelectronSpectroscopy(XPS) .......... 686
C.3 X-rayDiffractionSpectroscopy(XDS) ............ 689
12.2SpectroscopyofChargedParticles ................... 692
12.2.A α-ParticleSpectroscopy ..................... 692
A.1 Energy of an Unknown α-Source ............... 697
A.2 Range and Stopping Power of α-particles in a Gas . . . . . 697
A.3 Activity of an α Source .................... 697
12.2.BElectronSpectroscopy ...................... 698
12.3NeutronSpectroscopy .......................... 699
12.3.ANeutronsasMatterProbes ................... 699
12.3.BNeutronSpectrometryTechniques ............... 701
B.1 Triple-AxisSpectrometry(TAS) ............... 704
B.2 High Flux Backscattering Spectrometer (HFBS) . . . . . . 706
B.3 FilterAnalyzerSpectrometer(FAS) ............. 706
B.4 DiskChopperSpectrometer.................. 707
B.5 FermiChopperSpectrometer(FCS) ............. 708
B.6 SpinEchoSpectrometer.................... 709
12.4MassSpectroscopy ............................ 710
12.5TimeSpectroscopy............................ 711
13 Data Acquisition Systems 717
13.1DataAcquisitionChain ......................... 717
xviii
13.1.APulseCounting.......................... 717
A.1 SlowPulseCounting...................... 718
A.2 FastPulseCounting ...................... 718
13.1.BEnergySpectroscopy....................... 719
13.1.CTimeSpectroscopy........................ 719
13.1.DCoincidenceSpectroscopy .................... 720
13.2ModularInstruments........................... 721
13.2.ANIMStandard .......................... 721
A.1 NIMLayout........................... 722
A.2 NIMModules.......................... 723
A.3 NIMLogic ........................... 724
A.4 SignalTransport ........................ 725
13.2.BCAMACStandard ........................ 725
B.1 CAMACLayout ........................ 725
B.2 CAMACControllers...................... 725
B.3 CAMACLogic ......................... 726
13.2.CVMEStandard.......................... 726
C.1 VMELayout .......................... 727
C.2 VMEBackplane ........................ 728
C.3 VMEModules ......................... 728
C.4 VMELogic ........................... 728
13.2.DFASTBUSStandard ....................... 729
D.1 FASTBUSLayout ....................... 729
D.2 FASTBUSBackplane ..................... 729
13.3PCBasedSystems ............................ 729
13.3.APCIBoards............................ 729
13.3.BPCSerialPortModules ..................... 730
13.3.CPCParallelPortModules.................... 732
13.3.DUSBBasedModules ....................... 732
13.3.ETCP/IPBasedSystems ..................... 732
Appendices 737
A Essential Electronic Measuring Devices 739
A.1 Multimeters................................ 739
A.1.A MeasuringVoltageandCurrent................. 739
A.1.B AnalogMultimeter(AMM) ................... 740
A.1.C DigitalMultimeter(DMM) ................... 740
A.1.D MeasuringVoltage ........................ 740
A.1.E MeasuringCurrent........................ 741
A.2 Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 741
A.2.A Analog Oscilloscope . ...................... 741
A.1 Attenuator ........................... 742
A.2 ElectronGun.......................... 742
A.3 ElectronBeamDeflectionSystems .............. 742
A.4 TriggerSystem......................... 744
A.2.B Digital Oscilloscopes . ...................... 744
A.2.C SignalProbes........................... 745
C.1 PassiveProbes ......................... 745
xix