Attokaran M. Natural Food Flavors and Colorants

136 Individual Flavors and Colorants

sesquiterpene lactones are reported in fresh chicory root (Van Beek et al. 1990 ). The

threshold values of these bitter substances have been determined.

Extractives

Roasted chicory roots are extracted with hot water at 60 ° C. This, on concentration,

becomes a valuable ﬂ avor. Like tea, the extract can also be made by 50% aqueous

ethyl alcohol, which results in an extract with more of the organic molecules, including

bitter substances.

Uses

Roasted chicory is used as an additive to roasted coffee. Its extractives are also added

to instant coffee. Chicory generally improves the body of coffee decoction but reduces

the aroma. The use of chicory naturally reduces the caffeine content of coffee, which

is seen as an advantage by some. Chicory has value as a source of soluble ﬁ ber and

as a prebiotic.

Chicory extract is used in bakery items, frozen dairy desserts, and alcoholic drinks

to provide bitterness; it is also used in herbal tea. Chicory extract has some pharma-

ceutical properties and therefore ﬁ nds use in digestive and diuretic preparations.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Chicory extract 2280 68650 - 43 - 1 182.20 –

References

Baek , H.H. ; and Cadwallader , K.R. 1997 . Roasted chicory aroma evaluation by gas chromatography/mass

spectrometry/olfactometry J. Food Sci. 63 ( 2 ), 234 – 237 .

Leung , Albert Y. ; and Foster , Steven . 1996 . Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients , 2nd edition .

New York : John Wiley and Sons , pp. 161 – 163 .

Van Beek , Teris A. ; Maas , Paul ; King , Bonnie M. ; Leclercq , Edith ; Voragen , Alphons G.J. ; and De Groot ,

Aede . 1990 . Bitter sesquiterpene lactone from chicory roots . J. Agric. Food Chem. 38 ( 4 ), 1035 – 1038 .

Introduction

Cinnamon was used in the embalming and religious ceremonies of Egypt. It is possible

that in ancient literature, true cinnamon was confused with Chinese cassia. Cinnamon

is mentioned in the Old Testament where Moses is commanded to use it; its value is

described in the songs of Solomon; and it ﬁ nds mention in the classical writings of

Herodotus and others. It was considered too expensive for ordinary funerals of ancient

Rome, but it is believed that Nero commanded a huge quantity to be burned at the

funeral of his wife.

Arab traders used to deal in this costly spice for Europe. Later, European forces

landed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) where the Portuguese, the Dutch, and ﬁ nally the English

took control. Slowly, cultivation spread to other tropical colonies. While there was

confusion between cassia and cinnamon in early literature, in recent times, true cin-

namon bark is recognized as a thin inner layer of bark that has smoother surface and

originates from a different tree. The Greek word for tube or pipe is kinnamon , a refer-

ence to the dried barks that are produced as tube - like rolls.

Plant Material

Cinnamon is a bushy evergreen tree with a height of 10 – 15 m. The stem is covered

with thick, brown - colored bark, while young branches are covered with green - colored

bark. While young leaves are reddish in color, mature ones are smooth and dark green.

Flowers are formed on auxiliary panicles and are of about 3 mm in diameter and pale

yellow in color.

Cinnamon grows at sea level in humid conditions with much rainfall. Vegetative

propagation is carried out through cuttings, layering, or by division of old rootstock.

Early harvest brings about 50 kg of quills per hectare/year. But when the tree is fully

mature at 10 years, harvest increases to around 200 kg of dry quills.

Sri Lanka is the major producer of cinnamon; it is also cultivated in Southwest

India, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Madagascar, Seychelles, and Brazil.

Commercial cinnamon is made by cutting branches and scraping the rough outer

skin. Then the inner bark is removed to make into recognized grades. The long rolls

of inner bank of 1 - m length become the best grade, known as “ quills. ” Due to break-

age during the processing, small pieces are obtained; rolls of this grade are known as

“ quillings. ” Although also of good quality, because they are pieces, this grade is

Cinnamon

Cinnamomum verum Presl;

C. zeylanicum Nees ( Lauraceae )

34

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Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran

138 Individual Flavors and Colorants

mostly used for grinding. Other lower grades are “ feathering, ” which are inner barks

or twigs that cannot give straight quills or quillings, and “ chips, ” which are pieces

obtained from thick branches. Photo 8 shows cinnamon quills.

Chemistry

Cinnamon contains 16 – 23% carbohydrates, 3 – 5% proteins, below 2% ﬁ xed oil, 25 –

30% crude ﬁ ber, and 1.5 – 2.5% essential oil. It has vitamins, but since it is mainly

used for ﬂ avor, they are not signiﬁ cant.

The most important constituent is cinnamon oil. The major component of the oil

is cinnamic aldehyde or cinnamaldehyde (for the structure, see Chapter 31 on cassia).

Cinnamaldehyde was isolated in 1834 by Dumas and Peligot. The naturally occurring

one is trans - cinnamaldehyde.

Essential Oil

Steam distillation is carried out from ground cinnamon of lower grades. Distillation

takes a long time as the oil is heavy, with a density higher than that of water. To

facilitate movement of vapors, generally a side arm is connected to a condenser just

above the packed spice instead of an upward projecting gooseneck. The collected oil

tends to diffuse, and separation from water takes some time. Salting will not help as

the oil is heavier than water. A small portion of lighter fraction collects at the top.

This is added to the stock. Generally, the commercial yield will be around 1%.

The oil contains 65 – 75% cinnamaldehyde, though a higher content is also reported.

The other components are l - linalool, furfural, methyl amyl ketone, some aldehyde,

terpene, and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. Cinnamon of Sri Lankan origin was histori-

cally regarded as true cinnamon. Now based on analysis, especially of coumarin, it is

possible to distinguish true cinnamon from others including cassia (Lungarini et al.

2008 ).

An analysis carried out with a sample of Cinnamomum zeylanicum purchased from

a local market in Italy shows cinnamic acid content at 32.7% and eugenol content at

Photo 8. Cinnamon quills. See color insert.

34 Cinnamon 139

46.5% (Chericoni et al. 2005 ). The cinnamic aldehyde contents of two samples col-

lected from the Bangalore and Mysore areas in India are 59.30% and 60.49%, respec-

tively (Mallaverappu and Rajeswara 2007 ). In the case of the Bangalore sample, the

linalool content is 13.78%, p - cymene 4.71%, β - caryophyllene 1.54%, and benzyl

benzoate 1.51%. In the Mysore sample, the cinnamyl acetate content is 13.58%, but

the β - caryophyllene content is 5.56%. By supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of a

Sri Lankan sample, cinnamyl aldehyde accounts for 72.6 – 79.0% and β - caryophyllene

5.1 – 7.6% of the extract (Marongiu et al. 2007 ).

Cinnamon bark oil is a brownish - yellow liquid with a sweet and spicy aroma. The

taste is sweet and mildly burning, typical of cinnamon bark.

Physical characteristics as deﬁ ned by the FCC are as follows.

Optical rotation − 2 to 0 °

Refractive index 1.573 – 1.591 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 1.010 – 1.030

Solubility 1 mL dissolves in 3 mL of 70% alcohol

Uses

Cinnamon is widely used in baked goods, confectionery, meat, and other food prod-

ucts. The extractive can give a delicate ﬂ avor to processed foods. Small quantities of

the essential oil are used in cosmetics.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Cinnamon bark oil 2291 8015 - 91 - 6 182.20 –

84649 - 98 - 9

Cinnamon bark oleoresin 2290 8015 - 91 - 6 182.20 –

84961 - 46 - 6

References

Chericoni , S. ; Prieto , J.M. ; Iacopini , P. ; Cioni , P. ; and Morelli , I. 2005 . In vitro activity of the essential oil

of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and eugenol in peroxynitrite - induced oxidative process . J. Agric. Food

Chem. 53 , 4762 – 4765 .

Lungarini , S. ; Aureli , F. ; and Coni , E. 2008 . Coumarin and cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon marketed in Italy.

A natural chemical hazard? Food Addit. Contam. Part A Anal. Control Exposure Risk Assess. 25 ( 11 ),

1297 – 1305 .

Mallaverappu , G.R. ; and Rajeswara Rao , B.R. 2007 . Chemical constituents and uses of Cinnamomum

zylanicum Blume . In I. Jirovetz , N.X. Dung , and V.K. Varshney , eds., Aromatic Plants from Asia: Their

Chemistry and Application in Food Therapy . Dehra Dun, India : H.K. Bhalla and Sons , pp. 49 – 75 .

Marongiu , B. ; Piras , A. ; Porcedda , S. ; Tuveri , E. ; Sanjust , E. ; Meli , M. ; Sollai , F. ; Zucca , P. ; and Rescigno ,

A. 2007 . Supercritical CO

2

extract of Cinnamomum zeylanicum . Chemical characterization and antity-

rosinase activity . J. Agric. Food Chem. 55 , 10022 – 10027 .

Introduction

In addition to the bark, the cinnamon tree yields leaves from which essential oil can

be produced by steam distillation. The history of cinnamon has already been given in

Chapter 34 . The cinnamon leaf ’ s essential oil resembles clove bud oil both in ﬂ avor

quality and use.

Plant Material

The tree has shiny green leaves when mature. In the immature stage, leaves have

a reddish color. It is not practical to pluck fresh leaves for the distillation of

oil. Generally, the leaves that fall and dry on the ground are collected for steam

distillation.

Essential Oil

On steam distillation, dry leaves give a yield of 1.5 – 2% cinnamon leaf oil. The prin-

cipal component is eugenol, which along with eugenyl acetate accounts for as much

as 90%. Typical analysis of Sri Lankan and Indian leaf oils based on several samples

is given in Table 35.1 .

It can be seen that Indian oil has a higher level of eugenol and its acetate. As could

be expected, Sri Lankan oil has other constituents at higher levels. Sri Lankan cin-

namon leaf oil on analysis showed 74.9% eugenol. Other compounds present in

noticeable amounts are α - pinene, linanol, cinnamaldehyde, safrole, β - caryophyllene,

cinnamyl acetate, α - farnasene, eugenyl acetate, and benzyl benzoate (Schmidt et al.

2006 ). Indian oil obtained from the Hyderabad region showed 79 – 91% eugenol. Other

constituents are α - pinene, limonene, eugenol acetate, benzyl benzoate, safrole, cin-

namyl acetate, and cinnamic aldehyde (Rajeswara et al. 2006 ). Cinnamon leaf oil from

Fiji has 86% of eugenol and most of the above constituents at low levels, but β -

caryophyllene at 5.7% and linalool at 2.3% (Patel et al. 2007 ).

One analysis of fresh leaves from India gave only 0.25% yield (dry basis) when

fresh leaves with a moisture level of 47% were steam distilled . Oils with higher boiling

components need distillation over a long period of time. It was not surprising that the

oil from fresh leaves as above showed a speciﬁ c gravity of only 0.9223 (Shintre and

Rao 1932 ).

Cinnamon Leaf

Cinnamomum verum Presl. C. zeylanicum

Nees ( Lauraceae )

35

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142 Individual Flavors and Colorants

Collection of fallen and sun - dried leaves is an expensive process. It is therefore

not uncommon to see that primary distillation is carried out locally in crude

stills. Such lots are then consolidated. Distillation carried out in primitive iron stills

yields an oil that has a black color, because of interaction of phenolic eugenol with

iron.

As per the FCC, cinnamon leaf oil occurs as a light to dark - brown liquid, with a

spicy cinnamon – clove odor and taste. It is soluble in most ﬁ xed oils and in propylene

glycol. It is soluble with cloudiness in mineral oil but is insoluble in glycerin.

Physical characteristics of Ceylon and Seychelles cinnamon leaf oils are deﬁ ned

by the FCC as follows.

Sri Lanka type Seychelles type

Optical rotation − 2 to + 1 ° − 2 to 0 °

Refractive index 1.529 – 1.537 1.533 – 1.540 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 1.030 – 1.050 1.040 – 1.060

Solubility in alcohol 1 mL in 1.5 mL of 70%

alcohol

1 mL in 1 mL of 70% alcohol

As far as is known, no oleoresin is made from cinnamon leaves on commercial

basis.

In a laboratory study done with oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf, eugenol is found

to account for over 87% of the volatiles. Leaf volatiles are found to be effective against

most fungi (Singh et al. 2007 ).

Uses

The main value of cinnamon leaf oil is due to the high content of eugenol and its

consequent antiseptic property. It is therefore used in toothpaste, mouthwash, and

other dental preparations. It is often added to similar preparations of clove oil, as cin-

namon leaf oil is less costly than clove oil.

Cinnamon leaf oil can even replace clove oil in processed food since it is cheaper.

It is also used in cosmetics and toiletries.

Table 35.1. Analysis of cinnamon leaf oils from Sri Lanka and India

Chemical Constituents Sri Lankan (%) Indian (%)

α - Pinene 0.7 – 1.3 0.1 – 0.5

β - Pinene 0.2 – 0.5 0.1 – 0.3

δ - 3 - Carene 1.0 – 1.5 0.4 – 0.8

Limonene 0.2 – 0.5 0.1 – 0.3

Safrole 0.8 – 1.2 0.2 – 0.5

Cinnamic aldehyde 1.0 – 2.0 0.2 – 0.6

β - Caryophyllene 3.0 – 4.0 2.0 – 3.0

Eugenol 75.0 – 79.0 85.0 – 89.0

Eugenyl acetate 1.5 – 2.5 2.0 – 3.0

Benzyl benzoate 2.5 – 3.5 0.5 – 1.5

35 Cinnamon Leaf 143

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Cinnamon leaf oil 2292 8007 - 80 - 5 182.20 –

8015 - 91 - 6

Cinnamic aldehyde 2286 104 - 55 - 2 182.60 –

References

Patel , K. ; Ali , S. ; Sotheeswarn , S. ; and Dufor , J.P. 2007 . Composition of the leaf essential oil of Cinnamomum

verum ( Lauraceae ) from Fiji islands . J. Essent. Oil - Bearing Plants 10 , 374 – 377 .

Rajeswara , Rao ; Rajput , D.K. ; Sastry , K.P. ; Kothari , S.K. ; and Bhattacharya , A.K. 2006 . Leaf essential oil

proﬁ les of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume . Indian Perfumer 50 ( 4 ), 44 – 46 .

Schmidt , E. ; Jerovetz , I. ; Buchbauer , G. ; Eller , G.A. ; Stoilova , I ; Karstanov , A. ; Stoyanova , A. ; and Geissler ,

M. 2006 . Composition and antioxidant activities of the essential oil of cinnamon ( Cinnamomum zeyl-

anicum Blume) leaves from Sri Lanka . J. Essent. Oil - Bearing Plants 9 , 170 – 182 .

Shintre , V.P. ; and Rao , Sanjeva, B. 1932 . Essential oil from leaves of Cinnamomum zylanicum Breyn .

J. Indian Institute Sci. 15a , 84 – 87 .

Singh , Gurdip ; Maurya , Sumitra ; de Lampasona , M.P. ; and Catalan , Cesar A.R. 2007 . A comparison of

chemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial studies of cinnamon leaf and bark volatile oils, oleoresins and

their constituents . Food Chem. Toxicol. 45 ( 9 ), 1650 – 1661 .

Introduction

Clove has been an important spice since ancient times. There are reports that in China

around 200 BC, during the Han period, it was used as a mouth freshener while speak-

ing to important people like the Emperor. For the same reason, it is also believed to

have been important in ancient Rome and medieval England.

After black pepper and paprika, clove may be the most traded spice in the world.

Clove is indigenous to Moluccas, which is now a part of Indonesia. Zanzibar, which

is now a part of Tanzania, was at one time a major supplier of clove bud. The island

of Pamba is known as the “ Island of Cloves. ” But today, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and

Madagascar are suppliers to the world. Cloves are also cultivated in India, but its huge

demand is met mostly by import.

Plant Material

Clove is the unopened ﬂ ower bud of an evergreen tree of 10 – 15 m in height. The tree

is an attractive one, with two or three erect branches and smaller side branches with

simple, green leaves. Inﬂ orescence is terminal, corymbose, trichotomous panicle,

shortly peduculate, and branched from the base. The number of ﬂ owers varies between

three and 50 and in some cases even more.

The plant requires a tropical climate with 150 – 300 cm of rainfall per year as in

Indonesia, Zanzibar, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and Southwest India. The tree prefers

rich loamy soil with high humus. The crop is propagated by seeds that are obtained

from fully ripe fruits. The tree is ready for harvesting in 4 – 5 years. The buds are har-

vested when pink in color, with petals intact. Individual buds are then separated and

dried in the sun. Harvesting is done manually. A good average yield per tree is 3.5 – 7 kg

of dried buds. Photo 9 shows (A) cloves on the plant and (B) dried cloves and the

resulting oil.

Chemistry

The main constituent is eugenol (Fig. 36.1 ); being phenolic, it lends a medicinal smell

to spice and extractives. It has good antiseptic properties. Eugenol acetate, β -

caryophyllene, linalool, and α - pinene are also present. Some of the sesquiterpenes

identiﬁ ed are α - cubebene, α - copaene, β - caryophyllene, α - humulene, and cadinenes.

Clove

Syzygium aromaticum L ( Myrtaceae )

36

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