Attokaran M. Natural Food Flavors and Colorants

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Part III

Future Needs

Introduction

Part II described a wide range of ﬂ avors and colorants of natural origin. With the

recent emphasis on the use of natural materials, there is considerable scope for adding

more to the list. In fact, a great many plant products are used on a regional basis. Once

the ﬂ avor qualities of these are recognized, it will not be a complicated job to market

them globally.

In fact, activities such as these are an ideal project for students of food and ﬂ avor

technology. The most important idea to focus on is the development of self - preservable

extractives, which are well standardized. Once laboratory studies are done, manufac-

turing ﬁ rms can make small lots to test the economic potential and consumer accep-

tance of these products. Cosmetic and perfumery manufacturers are more adventurous

in this respect. There is a constant search for new fragrances, resulting in a large

number of products now in use, which were unknown even a decade ago. Food manu-

facturers and consumers are more conservative in this regard. Of course, one reason

for this may be the fact that food is consumed while fragrance materials are only

applied externally. However, with well - developed toxicological testing procedures

now available, there is no danger of harmful ﬂ avors and colors entering a consumer ’ s

body, especially if the products are natural. With adverse skin reaction and allergy

complications a concern, it would appear that new fragrance materials undergo more

rigorous testing than do even ﬂ avor ingredients. Besides, if ﬂ avors and colors popular

in some regions are extended to other parts of the world, there is no need for such

fears. It is primarily a question of consumer acceptance. With many materials, the

ﬂ avor is to a great extent an acquired one. Therefore, long - range programs are needed.

In the case of natural colorants, the greatest problem is the limitation of available

materials. Many of the presently available colors are in the yellow to red range.

Luckily, these are also well - accepted colors for food. There is still considerable scope

to introduce new colorants, which are either water - or fat - soluble. Many of the newly

developed natural colorants will also be used by cosmetics manufacturers.

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran

There are many plant products that are used as natural ﬂ avors especially in cookery.

Some of them make excellent savory ﬂ avors in soups, snacks, dressings, and in ready -

made seasonings, provided they are made into usable extractives .

Allied Spices

Some of the major spices have close cousins that have special ﬂ avors. Thus, ginger

has related products such as the different types of galangals (Chapters 51 – 53 ), and

black pepper has long pepper (Chapter 71 ).

Allium species have many members that are utilized in culinary practices. Two

well - exploited Allium products are garlic and onion, presented in Chapters 55 and 79 ,

respectively. A recent study on the effect of different heat treatments generally used

in cooking treatments on various Allium products showed interesting changes to their

volatile and nonvolatile constituents (Kramer et al. 2006 ).

Shallot , Allium oschaninii , originated in Asia and through India it spread to the

Mediterranean region. Many people believe that it originated in an ancient city of

Ashkelon, in the geographical territory of the present Israel. In taste, it resembles onion

but with slightly more sweetness and a milder ﬂ avor. It has the some tear - producing

quality when cut. Shallots are much smaller than onions (see Photo 30 ).

Shallots are widely used in the cooking of Southeast Asian countries and in South

Asia. Two popular dishes of South India where shallot plays a prime role are sambar

and rasam. It is also used in pickles. However, because of poor marketing, shallots

are relatively expensive in Europe and in the United States.

Research studies on the shallot are very few. Its tear - producing property is generally

assumed to be similar to that of the onion, but there could be subtle differences. It is

reported to contain polyphenols of the ﬂ avonoid type.

Unlike the onion, shallot does not contribute to the texture of food and its ﬂ avor

is more delicate. Many people prefer shallot to onion in omelettes mainly because

they can enjoy the special ﬂ avor without biting into thick pieces. All of these facts

point to the possible success of an extract suitably made, which can serve as a unique

and welcome ﬂ avor in many foods.

Scallion , Allium wakegi , is known by many names such as spring onion, salad

onion, and green onion. Scallion is similar to shallot in ﬂ avor but with subtle changes.

It does not have a fully developed bulb like other Allium products, but has a white,

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Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran

410 Future Needs

tender, swollen lower end with a green, hollow, upper portion. They have a pungent

taste but are milder than onions. They are used either cooked or eaten raw, and used

in soups, noodles, and seafood preparations.

Chives , Allium schoenoprasum , are perhaps the smallest member of the Allium

species. They are grown in North America, Europe, and Asia. Chives are unique in

that they are a plant that has thrived in both the New and Old Worlds. It is an herba-

ceous perennial plant with a well - formed but small bulb, 2 – 3 cm long and about 1 cm

wide.

Chives are available fresh throughout the year and hence are popular in European

cuisines. They can also be dry frozen without much effect on the taste. Like garlic,

chive has many sulfur - containing ﬂ avoring compounds and is believed to have some

medicinal properties. It is rich in vitamins A and C and contains minerals such as iron

and calcium. Although chives have been cultivated in Europe from ancient times,

chemical studies on the plant are rather limited. There is reason to take up scientiﬁ c

studies so that a well - standardized extractive is available for use in processed foods.

Garlic chives , Allium tuberosum , are also known as Chinese chives or Chinese

leeks. The wild ones are classiﬁ ed as Allium ramosum . They have become acceptable

Photo 30. Shallot. See color insert.

100 Opportunities in Natural Flavors 411

in the English - speaking world, but have been popular in China and other Asian coun-

tries for quite some time. The plant has strap - like leaves, straight, thin, tall ﬂ ower

stalks, and attractive white ﬂ owers. Both stalks and leaves are used in stir - fried foods

in China, Japan, and Korea. It is a popular spice for dumplings with eggs, meat, or

seafood. Garlic chives are commonly used to make a type of pancake. The ﬂ avor has

a typical chive taste but with a distinct garlic note. Like other Allium cooking ingre-

dients, garlic chives may also play an important role if extractives are made available

for processed food industry.

Leek , Allium ampeloprasum , also referred to as Allium porrum , is another member

of the onion family. The edible part is the white onion - like bulb and the light green

stalk, which is primarily the lower portion of the leaf sheaths. The dark green upper

portion is not used.

The leek is known to have been in ancient Egypt and was a favorite food of the

Roman Emperor Nero. The leek is the national emblem of Wales and Shakespeare

refers to the custom of wearing a leek as an ancient tradition in Henry V.

Leeks can be boiled or fried and gives excellent taste to soups. It is also used raw

in salads. While its texture is important, development of a leek extract for use as a

natural ﬂ avor is worth a try, especially using parts of the plant that are not used in

cookery.

The bell pepper is the same genus and species, namely, Capsicum annuum , as hot

chili or paprika. It is valued as a vegetable but has a unique and attractive ﬂ avor. In

fact, production of synthetic bell pepper ﬂ avor has been attempted, though the natural

ﬂ avor is well worth the trouble. Efforts should be made to use wastage and unused

parts of the plant product. It produces very low amounts of capsaicin.

The bell pepper is native to Mexico, Central America, and northern parts of South

America. The seeds are believed to have been carried to Europe in 1493, and later

spread to Asia and Africa as a very tasty vegetable with mild hotness. Because of its

bell shape, it was called bell pepper, though it is sometimes referred to as sweet pepper.

In India, it is very common to call the bell pepper “ capsicum, ” while in Indonesia it

is referred to as “ paprika. ” It is generally used in culinary practices as a green mature

fruit before ripening. On ripening, bell pepper may assume a yellow to red color.

On a wet basis, the fruit has 4.64% carbohydrate, 2.40% sugars, 1.7% dietary ﬁ ber,

0.17% fat, and 0.86% protein. It has a wide range of vitamins belonging to the B

group, ascorbic acid, and a number of minerals. On ripening, it is a rich source of

carotenes and lycopenes, all valued as nutraceuticals.

Turmeric also has closely related spices whose ﬂ avor is enjoyed regionally

(Govindarajan 1980 ). Some of them are as follows.

Curcuma aromatica grows in most parts of India. Generally, it is cultivated where

its more valuable cousin turmeric proper ( Curcuma longa ) (see Chapter 98 ) is grown.

More than just a spice, it has value in cosmetics. A small but steady production of the

essential oil is made in South India.

C. aromatica is a perennial tuberous herb with an aromatic yellow rhizome. The

rhizome looks like that of turmeric but is darker with an olive - green tint. The ﬁ ngers

are longer and thinner. The oil has a pale yellow color with an odor that is quite dif-

ferent from that of turmeric. The yellow shade is due to curcumin, which turns into a

volatile fraction during steam distillation.

412 Future Needs

Temoe lawak , Curcuma xanthorrhiza R, is similar to turmeric and is popular in

Indonesia. The rhizome is mostly valued for its medicinal properties. The rhizome has

a very high content of 7 – 11% v/w of essential oil. It is closely related to Curcuma

domestica oil. The oil has camphor, p - tolyl methyl carbinol, and a large percentage

of myrcene.

Zedoary , Curcuma zedoaria R, is cultivated for its starch and its typical aroma.

Rhizome and oil are highly aromatic with a gingery, camphory, bitter note. However,

its use is restricted to only a few regions.

Mango ginger , Curcuma amada R, is a root crop that is more commonly utilized

than the others described above. It has a distinct mango ﬂ avor and is therefore used

in pickling. It also has limited medicinal use.

Analysis shows the presence of hydrocarbons, α - pinene, ocimene, and curcumins.

Linalool, camphor, cuminyl alcohol, turmarone, and some ketoalcohol have also been

reported.

The extractive of mango ginger has an appealing ﬂ avor. It has a sweet, bitter, and

cooling note with an aroma combining green mango, turmeric, and ginger. The essen-

tial oil and oleoresin need more detailed analysis, as they have the potential to be

utilized as a natural ﬂ avor .

Masticatory Products

There are some plant products that have become quite popular as a masticatory in

different parts of the world. These materials have been able to earn sustained interest

mainly because of something special in their ﬂ avor. Two such products patronized by

local people in South America and Africa are coca leaves (see Chapter 38 ) and kola

nuts (see Chapter 65 ). How these became wildly popular through a world - renowned

soft drink is one of food technology ’ s major success stories of modern times.

Arecanut , Areca catechu , is the kernel of a palm tree. Also called betel nut, are-

canut is an extremely popular masticatory in India and other Asian countries. The fact

that a vast industry has developed around this crop speaks volumes on its popularity.

The kernel, often referred to as a nut, is surrounded by a husk and therefore externally

resembles a miniature coconut. The size of the nut with husk is 5 – 8 cm in length and

3 – 6 cm in diameter.

The chemistry of the arecanut has been well studied. When ripe, it has 7 – 35%

polyphenols on dry basis, which give the nut its welcome astringent taste. At an

immature stage, the polyphenol level is much higher, going up to 50%. Both ( + )cat-

echin and ( − )epicatechin have been identiﬁ ed, but the main polyphenol is leucocyani-

din, much of which is present as condensed polymeric tannin. Traces of leucopelargonidin

also have been reported (Mathew et al. 1969 ).

The nut also contains an alkaloid, arecolin, present to an extent of 0.1 – 0.9%. There

are also some allied alkaloids at much smaller levels. Research on the chemistry of

the arecanut has been limited, although, Wang et al. (1999) published a paper on its

catechin content.

There have been reports that chewing the arecanut brings about oral cancer.

However, many consumers chew arecanut along with unreﬁ ned tobacco. Usually, the

chew mix also contains a bit of slaked lime. The carcinogenic property is more likely

100 Opportunities in Natural Flavors 413

due to the presence of tobacco and slaked lime. It is believed that an extract of are-

canut, mostly made of leucocyanidin derivatives, is as harmless as tea extract.

The catechins of tea, which are ﬂ avan - 3 - ols, are now considered to be an excellent

antioxidant. It is quite possible that the ﬂ avan - 3,4 - diols of arecanut are an equally

effective antioxidant. The low level of arecoline makes it unlikely to be a harmful

chemical. Like most other alkaloids present in foods used as stimulants, it acts on the

nervous system, but consumers (especially of earlier generations) love the ﬁ ne astrin-

gent ﬂ avor.

In recent years, the popularity of chewing arecanut has decreased, as the younger

generation considers the habit to be unfashionable. Despite this trend, processors

produce more sophisticated products by blending dry spices and pieces of dessert nuts,

and the interest in India is being sustained to some extent.

Katha , Acacia catechu , is used in India as a masticatory, generally with the

chewing mix containing arecanut and betel leaf. Acacia catechu is a moderate - sized

deciduous tree, 9 – 12 m in height. Gummy exudate from the wood is brown in color

with a brittle, crystal - like structure.

The extract has polyphenols and a good astringent taste. One of the main properties

of a polyphenol - rich masticatory is its ability to counter a feeling of nausea; this

property is also valuable in a ﬂ avor mix.

Betel leaf , Piper betle , is a climber like black pepper. The fresh leaf is highly valued

for its ﬁ ne herbal aroma, contributed by the essential oil it contains. It is rich in phenol -

based terpenes, which give the oil a medicinal note. It contains chavibetol, chavicol,

estragole, eugenol, and hydroxy catechol. The volatile oil content of a fresh leaf is

0.12 – 0.14% (Sharma et al. 1987 ).

One of the main effects of chewing arecanut and betel leaf is that secretion of saliva

is activated. This is a point to be noted for ﬂ avor formulation, especially those repre-

senting savory ﬂ avor.

Others

Sarsaparilla , Smilax ofﬁ cinalis , is the root of a plant grown in different parts of the

world, especially in the Americas. The name probably comes from the Spanish word

zarga for “ shrub ” and parilla for “ little grape wine. ” The dried root is used in soft

drinks as a ﬂ avor, of which root beer and Sioux City sarsaparilla are two examples.

It is also made into sweetened drinks in Taiwan, India, and other countries.

There are related plants such as Aralia nudicaulis and Aralia racemosa that are

used as substitutes. The European medical world considers sarsaparilla to be a tonic,

diuretic, sweating agent, and blood puriﬁ er. However, although it has so much poten-

tial, sarsaparilla has not emerged as a ﬂ avor usable in different kinds of food, espe-

cially as a standardized extract.

Many ﬂ avor notes are produced by steps that commonly occur in everyday life.

Malting brings about the subtle ﬂ avor caused by the biochemical changes that occur

during germination of grains. On roasting, ﬂ avor improves in the case of dessert nuts

and spices. Poppy seed and roasted sesame seed, for example, can yield a good ﬂ avor

extract. Dried green mango, known as Amchoor , is used in northern parts of India

as a popular souring agent. If the product is well standardized or, even better, if a

414 Future Needs

concentrate of water or aqueous alcoholic extract is made, it has the potential to be

promoted as a natural ﬂ avor. Another example is horseradish, a popular condiment in

Japan and other parts of the world. It has a pungent, sulfur - containing ﬂ avor. It would

be worthwhile to produce standardized extractives so that they can be enjoyed in other

parts of the world. If one looks around, there are many ﬂ avor - contributing plant

materials, which are, at present, restricted to only certain regions. Simple operations

like ripening, germination, crushing, and thermal treatment may even add other desir-

able ﬂ avor notes to these plants. These are opportunities for the development of novel

ﬂ avors.

References

Govindarajan , V.S. 1980 . Turmeric — chemistry, technology and quality . CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 12 ,

199 – 301 .

Kramer , Gerhard ; Sabater , Christopher ; Brennecke , Stefan ; Liebig , Margit ; Freiherr , Kathrin ; Ott , Frank ;

Ley , Jacob P. ; Webber , Berthold ; Stoeckigt , Detlef ; Roloff , Michael ; Schmidt , Claus Oliver ; Gatﬁ eld ,

Ian ; and Bertram , Heinz - Juergen . 2006 . The ﬂ avor chemistry of culinary Allium preparations . Dev. Food

Sci. 43 , 169 – 172 .

Mathew , A.G. ; Parpia , H.A.B. ; and Govindarajan , V.S. 1969 . The nature of complex proanthocyanidins .

Phytochemistry 8 , 1543 – 1549 .

Sharma , M.L. ; Rawat , A.K.S. ; and Balasubrahmanyam , V.R. 1987 . Studies on essential oil of betel leaf .

Indian Perfumer 31 ( 4 ), 319 – 324 .

Wang , Gangli ; Yu , Jiandong ; Tian , Jingai ; and Zhang , Ji . 1999 . Analysis of chemical composition of

catechin and epi catechin by RP - HPLC . Yaowu Fenxi Zazhi 19 ( 2 ), 88 – 90 ( Chem. Abstr. 130 :301773).

Sources of natural colorants are rather limited. Almost all edible materials with color,

such as some fruits, are already highly priced and therefore are not a usable colorant

for other foods. The search must go on for underutilized colorants, even those which

are not currently used as food.

Anthocyanin - Based Colors

Anthocyanins not only have a bright color, but also have excellent water solubility.

There are many fruits that are only partially utilized for their coloration. They include

black currants, blueberries, and cranberries.

Black currant , Ribes nigrum , is a fruit native to northern parts of Europe and Asia.

It is a small shrub 1 – 2 m in height. The fruit is an edible berry 1 cm in diameter. It

has a very dark purple color with a smooth skin. The plant can produce as many as

5 kg of fruits per season.

Black currant is a fruit well utilized for fruit products, confectionery, and in house-

hold cooking. It is a rich source of ascorbic acid, and for this property, it was used in

World War I as a source of vitamin C. The anthocyanins present in black currant are

delphinidin - 3 - 0 - glucoside and rutinoside. The fruit is believed to be a good nutraceuti-

cal. An investigation into the anthocyanins and the effect of heat and aging on the

color was carried out (Pogorzelski and Czyzowska 1997 ).

However, the potential of further cultivation and extensive harvesting will have to

be explored to make black currant available for use as a natural colorant. The crop

became rare in the United States in the twentieth century when the farming of black

currant was banned (an outbreak of infestation was considered to be a threat to

America ’ s logging industry). With scientiﬁ c farming and efﬁ cient harvesting, the

availability of black currant can be extended severalfold so that both the fruit industry

and the natural color industry can grow.

The blueberry is a ﬂ owering plant belonging to genus Vaccinium and to the sub-

species of cynococcus . Several species of Vaccinium are grown in different regions.

The blueberry is not a true berry. The fruit is 5 – 16 mm in diameter. They have a

sweet taste with some acidity, causing sourness. Plants are grown in the United States,

Canada, and Europe. In recent years, the blueberry has been introduced to the Southern

hemisphere, especially in Australia, Chile, South Africa, Argentina, and New Zealand.

It is now used in a wide range of fruit products and as a ﬂ avorant in cereals, mufﬁ ns,

and snack foods.

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Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran