240 Notes to Pages 7–14
cultural analysis, in complex societies, is that which seeks to grasp the hegemonic in
its active and formative but also its transformational processes.’’
11. Jay, Marxism and Totality, 165.
12. Carlos Silva Cruz, ‘‘El progreso de la cultura musical en Chile,’’ Revista de Educa-
ción Nacional 11 (June–July 1915): 231, 233.
13. Altamirano and Sarlo, Literatura/Sociedad, 64.
14. Rama, Lettered City, 75.
15. Consult Simon Miller, ‘‘Urban Dreams and Rural Reality: Land and Landscape
in English Culture, 1920–45,’’ Rural History 6 (April 1995): 89–102. Also see Genet, Rural
Ireland, Real Ireland?, and for Argentina, Prieto, Discurso criollista. In addition, Wil-
liams examines the complex relationship between rural and urban spheres in Country
and the City.
16. Benedict Anderson convincingly argues that nations are ‘‘imagined commu-
nities’’ in which individuals and market conditions create and perpetuate a collective
national consciousness. See Anderson, Imagined Communities.
17. Lowenthal, Literature, Popular Culture, and Society, xi, xv.
18. Randal Johnson, ‘‘Editor’s Introduction: Pierre Bourdieu on Arts, Literature,
and Culture,’’ in Bourdieu, Field of Cultural Production, 12–13. See Goldmann, Hidden
God and Towards a Sociology of the Novel.
19. Johnson, ‘‘Editor’s Introduction,’’ 12.
20. Forgacs and Nowell-Smith, Antonio Gramsci, 108.
21. Bernstein, Class, Codes, and Control, 3:158. Also consult Apple, Ideology and Curricu-
lum, and Bourdieu and Passeron, Reproduction.
22. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 91–92.
23. Pike, ‘‘Aspects of Class Relations in Chile,’’ 17–18. Johnson, Pike, and other
scholars interested in Latin American middle classes are also discussed in Parker, Idea
of the Middle Class.
24. Pike, ‘‘Aspects of Class Relations in Chile,’’ 22–23. Pike drew this conclusion after
examining El Mercurio, which, as the journalistic organ of the Liberal Party, main-
tained a strongly oligarchic sensibility during the Parliamentary Republic. In addi-
tion, Pike’s characterization of the middle class partly stems from his attention to the
rather inconsequential Middle Class Federation (Federación de la Clase Media),
which in 1919 put forth a platform that ‘‘although containing a mild warning to the
oligarchy to refrain from some of its more notorious abuses said absolutely nothing
about aiding the lower classes.’’
25. See Luis Ratinoff, ‘‘The New Urban Groups: The Middle Classes,’’ in Lipset and
Solari, Elites in Latin America, and José Nun, ‘‘A Latin American Phenomenon: The
Middle-Class Military Coup,’’ in Petras and Zeitlin, Latin America. See Parker, Idea of
the Middle Class.
26. See, for example, Graciarena, Poder y clases sociales; Parker, Idea of the Middle Class, 3–5.
27. I use the term ‘‘Portalian Republic’’ to denote the period from the conserva-
tives’ final victory over the liberals in 1831 to the approval of a new constitution in
1891. The Portalian Republic may be divided into two periods: the conservative period
(1831–61) and the liberal period (1861–91), which began with the election of Chile’s first
Liberal president, José Joaquín Pérez.
28. Among Barros Arana’s major works are Historia jeneral de Chile and Un decenio de
la historia de Chile.