Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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anchored rating scales, management by objectives). There is no one best method

for rating individuals’ performance. All of the approaches have their strengths

and problems and can be compared in terms of use for administrative purposes

(e.g., promotions), developmental purposes (e.g., feedback), and legal defensibil-

ity (e.g., adherence to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964). (See Bernardin

et al., 2003, and Gomez-Mejia, Balkin, & Cardy, 2004, for more details on perfor-

mance approaches.) There seems to be a g factor of work performance that is anal-

ogous to the g (i.e., general intelligence) factor of cognitive ability since about 50%

of the variance in performance ratings is common (i.e., due to an overall general

perception of the ratee influencing the dimension ratings). Hunter, Schmidt,

Rauchenberger, and Jayne (2000) suggested that the g factor in work performance

is determined by two characteristics: general mental ability and conscientious-

ness.

Performance should be evaluated by the most appropriate raters. For example,

if most of an employee’s work is done at home or at client sites, using clients as

raters may be more important than using a traditional supervisor to rate the em-

ployee’s performance. Managers and supervisors for many of today’s workers are

often not around or are more removed from day-to-day situations. Thus, they

may be less available to answer questions or solve problems for workers. This

means that they may not be in the best position to judge an employee’s perfor-

mance. It also means that employees may need to rely on others for more coach-

ing or mentoring on the job. If supervisors are, however, used as raters, once they

find performance problems, they should: (1) explore the causes of the problems,

(2) provide effective feedback to the employee, and (3) develop an action plan

with the employee and empower him or her to reach solutions (Dobbins, Cardy, &

Carson, 1991).

Performance should be evaluated at the appropriate level. If an employee

works alone, measures of his or her individual performance are important. If,

however, he or she works in a team (which is increasingly being done in organi-

zations), performance should be measured at the team level. In other words, in-

dividuals should complete peer appraisals whereby they evaluate one another on

a number of important dimensions (e.g., effort, attendance, intellectual contri-

butions, cooperation with teammates). Some researchers have suggested that

team performance be measured by team members’ ratings of one another on ac-

tions such as cooperation with others, volunteering for additional work, offering

to help others, supporting and encouraging others, taking initiative in group ac-

tivities, dependability and attendance, and following procedures (Russell & Ja-

cobs, 2003; Werner, 1994). One rating system that has been gaining in popularity

has been the use of 360-degree systems. These involve using ratings by several

sources, including an employee’s peers, superiors, customers, and self to gain a

more thorough picture of the employee’s performance (Bernardin et al., 2003).

Organizations can also design performance measurement systems that evaluate

and reward “organizational performance,” such as the firm’s overall productiv-

ity or efficiency (Lawler, 2000).

XPLORING THE

AUSES OF

OOR

ERFORMANCE

Once a supervisor or rater determines that an employee has “poor” performance,

it is important that the rater(s) determine the causes of the performance. This is

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Work Performance and Careers 207

not easy, however. It is possible that the employee is directly responsible for his or

her performance. It is also likely, however, that his or her performance is partially

due to factors beyond his or her control. In most work situations, observers

(raters) tend to attribute the causes of a person’s poor performance to the worker,

while the actor (worker) attributes his or her poor performance to the situation.

This is referred to as the actor-observer bias (Carson, Cardy, & Dobbins, 1991; Kelly,

1973) and can cause conflict between the rater (observer) and the worker (actor) if

they disagree on what caused the performance problem.

Generally, most performance problems are thought to be due to ability, moti-

vation, or situational factors (Carson et al., 1991). The ability factors include the

employee’s skills and talents (e.g., job knowledge, intelligence, interpersonal

skills). Motivation refers to the effort expended. Situational or system factors in-

clude many organizational characteristics that can positively or negatively impact

performance, such as these (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2004):

•Poor coordination of work activities among workers.

•Inadequate information or instructions needed to perform a job.

•Low-quality materials.

•Lack of necessary equipment or equipment breakdowns.

•Inability to obtain raw materials, parts, or supplies.

•Inadequate financial resources.

•Poor supervision.

•Uncooperative coworkers and/or poor relations among people.

•Inadequate training.

•Insufficient time to produce the quantity or quality of work required.

•A poor work environment (e.g., cold, hot, noisy, frequent interruptions).

Performance depends on ability, motivation, and situational factors. For each

job situation, the rater (typically the manager) should examine (with the help of

the employee) the extent to which all three factors influenced the employee’s per-

formance (Table 9.1). This is important to help correct performance problems.

Once the manager and employee agree on the causes of the performance prob-

lems, they can discuss how to eliminate the factors that are negatively affecting

the employee’s performance (e.g., poor equipment), while increasing the factors

that facilitate positive performance. Table 9.1 illustrates what this discussion

might look like. As noted, different strategies are needed for different causes of

performance; thus, it is critical to first determine the causes of performance. Su-

pervisors are encouraged to play the role of coaches with their employees to en-

sure that the necessary resources are available to workers and to help them

identify an action plan to solve performance problems.

ERFORMANCE

MPORTANT

The measurement of employees’ performance is important to individuals and to

organizations. For individuals, how their performance is evaluated is often re-

lated to the outcomes they receive from work (e.g., future compensation, promo-

tions, selection into training or other developmental programs). These outcomes

are then related to employees’ satisfaction with their work, which impacts their

commitment to the job, absenteeism, turnover, stress, and future effort on the job

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(Whetten & Cameron, 2002). Thus, performance impacts many aspects of em-

ployees’ professional lives and career success. See Figure 9.1 for factors related to

performance and work outcomes.

For organizations, employee performance is measured in order to assess a

team’s, department’s, or division’s productivity. This ultimately provides a mea-

sure of the organization’s overall productivity.

ACTORS

ELATED TO

ORK

ERFORMANCE

Va r ious models exist for illustrating factors related to task or work performance.

In the career literature, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2002) and Lent (Chapter 5, this

volume) suggested that ability (as assessed by achievement, aptitude, or past per-

formance indicators) is seen as affecting performance directly and indirectly

through its impact on self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Self-efficacy and

Figure 9.1 Factors Related to Performance and Work Outcomes.

Ability

Performance Satisfaction

Outcomes

(intrinsic and

extrinsic)

Effort

Commitment

Absenteeism

Turnover

Stress

Table 9.1

How to Determine and Remedy Performance Problems

Cause Questions to Ask Possible Remedies

Ability Has the worker ever been able to

perform the job adequately?

Can others perform this job ade-

quately, but not this worker?

Train the employee.

Transfer to another job.

Redesign the job.

Terminate the employee.

Effort Is the worker’s performance level

declining?

Is performance lower on all tasks?

Clarify linkage between perfor-

mance and rewards.

Recognize good performance.

Situation Is performance erratic?

Are performance problems showing

up in all workers, even those who

have adequate supplies and

equipment?

Streamline work process.

Clarify needs to suppliers.

Change suppliers.

Eliminate conflicting signals or

demands.

Provide adequate tools.

Source: Modified from “Management Dialogues: Turning on the Marginal Performer,” by J. R.

Schermerhorn, W. I. Gardner, and T. N. Martin, 1990, Organizational Dynamics, 18, pp. 47–59; and

“Human Performance Problems and Their Solutions,” by G. A. Rummler, 1972, Human Resource

Management, 19, pp. 2–10.

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Work Performance and Careers 209

outcome expectations affect the level of performance goals and subgoals that peo-

ple set for themselves. As they noted, stronger self-efficacy beliefs and more fa-

vorable outcome expectations encourage more ambitious goals, which direct and

sustain employees’ performance. The performance level attained then serves to

influence individuals’ future development of abilities, self-efficacy, and outcome

expectations (i.e., a feedback cycle). Whatever model of work performance is

ferred to, it is clear that an employee’s current performance affects his or her

future effort and subsequent performance.

Hall (2002) suggested that two metacompetencies that are related to effective

performance are adaptability and identity. Employees who are adaptable demon-

strate flexibility, exploration, openness to new and diverse people and ideas,

comfort with turbulent change, and an eagerness to accept new challenges. Those

with identity learning competencies are involved in self-assessment; they seek

feedback, engage in personal development activities, and modify their self-

perceptions. He suggested that both are critical for all types of employees. For ex-

ecutives in particular, research has shown that the factors that had the greatest

impact on career success or performance were challenging assignments, formal

training, education, development, succession planning programs, and develop-

mental relationships (Hall, 2002). Perhaps counselors and employers can assist

individuals in enhancing these competencies, thereby improving their perfor-

mance.

E MPLOYEES AT VARIOUS LIFE AND CAREER STAGES:

HOW COUNSELORS CAN FACILITATE

E MPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

Not all employees have the same issues that impact their performance. For career

counselors to be effective in working with individuals, they need to assess what

life and career phase employees are in as well as what issues they are dealing

with. For example, at a very basic level, it is important to examine whether an in-

dividual is in the early-, middle-, or late-career stage of his or her life and explore

the unique issues he or she faces at work. While there is much debate over

whether career stages exist, most researchers recognize that individuals do expe-

rience a number of common issues as they enter and advance in careers (Feldman,

2002; Hall, 2002). Typically, they go through establishment, advancement, main-

tenance (which could involve growth or stagnation), and decline periods (as they

phase out of organizations). In addition, the type of work that a person does and

how it is structured can greatly affect his or her performance. For example, it is

important to examine to what extent he or she works in teams or in international

assignments. Thus, to better understand a person’s work performance, it is im-

portant to fully understand the challenges and issues he or she faces on the job.

The following sections describe some issues that employees at the early-,

mid

dle-, and late-career stages typically face and some suggestions to assist

them. In addition, differences among employees in their values and attitudes due

to the generation they grew up in affect their performance. These generational

differences are briefly described. Further, issues facing employed spouses and

parents, employees working in teams, those working in international assign-

ments, and those who have been terminated or displaced are described. Career

counselors who have a better appreciation for the various facets of employees’

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jobs and lives will have a better understanding of what really impacts their work

performance and what can be done to assist them.

Career development interventions can be used to assist most employees regard-

less of the life or career stage they may be in—self-assessment tools, career-

planning workshops, career workbooks (e.g., What Color Is Your Parachute? Bolles,

2004), individual counseling, assessment centers, psychological testing, mentor-

ing, job rotation programs, training programs, and other developmental programs

(Russell, 2003).

In addition, research suggests several types of career strategies that individu-

als can use to enhance their work performance and career success and fulfillment

(Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000, p. 85). Not all of these strategies will

work in every situation, so employees should evaluate them carefully in line with

their career goals. Strategies include:

•

Improving competence or developing ability in the current job and acquir-

ing additional work-related skills through education, training, and job

experiences.

•Extending work involvement, increasing effort, or devoting considerable

time, energy, and emotion to work role.

•Opportunity development or letting others know about career interests and

aspirations and taking advantage of opportunities.

•Developing mentoring or other supportive alliances.

•Image building to communicate the appearance of acceptability, success, and

potential for success (e.g., accepting and completing high-profile assign-

ments to build reputation in the firm).

•Organizational politics or using flattery, conformity, and trading of favors

and influence to attain desired outcomes.

Today, many American workers believe that they have to assume more respon-

sibility for their own career choices and directions because of the turbulent orga-

nizational landscape (e.g., restructurings, layoffs, outsourcing). In other words,

some workers have accepted more personal responsibility for their careers so

they can be more career mobile (Prugh, 1998).

ARLY

-C

AREER

MPLOYEES

During the early-career period, employees (typically ages 25 to 40) are faced with

the tasks of establishment and achievement. They have a number of task needs

such as learning the job, understanding the organizational rules and norms, as-

similating to the organizational culture, analyzing how they fit into their chosen

occupation and firm, increasing their competence, developing specialty and team

skills, and pursuing their goals. Essentially, they need to be seen as competent

contributors to the organization (Greenhaus et al., 2000; Savickas, 2002). They also

have some socio-emotional needs such as the need for support, autonomy, dealing

with feelings of competition and rivalries, and developing emotional intelligence

(Hall, 2002). Briefly, emotional intelligence refers to the development of personal

competencies (self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation toward goals) and social

competence (empathy, social skills; Goleman, 1995). Goleman (1998) argued that

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Work Performance and Careers 211

there is a relationship between emotional competencies and effective performance

in a variety of work roles and that emotional intelligence is twice as important as

pure intellect and expertise in contributing to performance excellence.

One issue that arises during the early-career period is the degree to which the

employee’s expectations for the job and outcomes (e.g., clear duties, timely feed-

back, developmental relationships, attractive rewards) is similar to the firms’

pectations for the new employee (e.g., competence, loyalty and commitment,

capacity to grow, ability to generate and sell ideas; Hall, 2002). Major differences

between the expectations of the employee and the firm can cause performance

problems and dissatisfaction.

Va r ious programs can assist early-career employees to become more produc-

tive, including anticipatory socialization, realistic recruitment or job previews,

orientation programs, and mentoring. New employees may want to participate in

some or all of these programs to be more effective on the job.

Anticipatory socialization programs (e.g., internships, cooperative education pro-

grams) are helpful for individuals to develop accurate, realistic expectations

about their chosen career field (Feldman, 2002). By working in the firm part time,

individuals can learn about the work and the organization to see if they will be a

good fit. They can also gain good information about their performance. The em-

ployer can also determine if there is a good fit between the individual and the

firm before hiring the employee for full-time work.

Realistic recruitment information can be given to employees before they join the

firm so that they have clear expectations of the requirements and duties of the

job. If they are told the positive and negative aspects of a job, they may experience

less reality shock, dissatisfaction, and turnover. They might also have better per-

formance on the job since they have clearer expectations about what is required

(Wanous, 1992).

Once they have joined a firm, orientation programs for new employees may help

to reduce anxieties and enhance performance. These programs typically provide

information on organizational policies, procedures, rules, work requirements, and

sources of information. They may also be used to educate employees about any ca-

reer programs, career paths, and opportunities for advancement in the firm. It is

often helpful if new employees get a realistic preview about the requirements of

the job so that they have appropriate expectations for their performance. Orienta-

tion programs also introduce new employees to the facilities, their peers, and their

job duties. This could be an ideal time to pair them up with a mentor.

Typically, mentoring refers to a developmental relationship between a more

senior employee and a junior employee, although today it is commonly accepted

that mentoring can occur in a variety of formats, such as by peers, supervisors,

and other high-level managers (Russell, 2003, in press). The mentor provides

reer-related support (e.g., sponsorship, exposure and visibility, challenging

work, coaching, counseling) and psychosocial support (e.g., role modeling, pro-

tection, friendship, acceptance, confirmation) to help the protégé grow and de-

velop on the job (Kram, 1985). If successful, mentoring may help reduce a

protégé’s inflated (unrealistic) expectations about the job, relieve stress associ-

ated with a new job, and may improve the protégé’s chances for survival and

growth in the firm (Dreher & Cox, 1996; Russell, in press). Thus, mentoring can

have a strong impact on an employee’s performance.

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It is also imperative that employees learn the ropes or are socialized to how things

are done in the organization if they are to be effective performers (Adkins, 1995).

Socialization occurs through interactions employees have with their supervisors,

peers, and others in the firm. Effective supervisors play the roles of coach, feed-

back

provider, trainer, role model, and protector in an accepting, esteem-

building

manner (Cascio, 2003). Counselors may also assist new employees by encourag-

ing them to have high career aspirations and by helping them to define their ca-

reer goals and plans. Research has shown that having higher aspirations often

leads to higher performance (Raelin, 1983).

During the early-career period, it is important that new employees be given

challenging work early because it has been shown to be related to strong initial

performance and to the maintenance of competence and performance through-

out a person’s career (Northrup & Malin, 1986). It also might ward off some fu-

ture obsolescence. A newcomer who is exposed to substantial challenges learns

that the organization is demanding, it expects people to assume responsibility

for decisions, and it holds people accountable for results. In addition, for the em-

ployee to have higher performance, he or she needs to receive frequent and con-

structive feedback. Giving employees challenging assignments can also assist

them to be more marketable if they leave the firm in the first few years, which

has become more common because of organizational restructurings, technologi-

cal advances that eliminate jobs, and differing job expectations among employ-

ees (e.g., Generation X and Y employees; Scandura, 2002). In addition, as Bobek

and Robbins (Chapter 26, this volume) noted, some firms are providing “career

pathing” programs to help in recruiting and retaining their workers.

It is especially important to develop strategies for retaining high-potential per-

formers because they are very marketable. Some of these strategies can be carried

out by managers or career counselors and might include:

•Holding one-on-one career planning meetings with each employee to record

the employee’s changing career interests.

•Offering opportunities for on-the-job training and support.

• Encouraging attendance at training to develop employees’ technical, super-

visory, and communication skills and knowledge.

•Providing mentoring programs.

•

Encouraging and supporting them to join professional and technical

associations.

•Offering company-paid tuition for completion of courses or programs

(Prugh, 1998).

IDCAREER

MPLOYEES

Once a person has become established in his or her career, the next phase is often

called the maintenance period. This typically occurs during a person’s midcareer

period. The major tasks for those typically between 40 and 55 are to reappraise

their lives, reaffirm their goals and dreams, and remain productive at work. See

Sterns and Subich (2002) for a more detailed review of career progression issues

during the midcareer period.

Midcareer is often referred to as the maintenance or management phase because

individuals are concerned with managing their self-concept during this tumul

tuous

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Work Performance and Careers 213

time. Society expects mature adults to “hold steady” and to remain interested in

their work and committed to their organization (Savickas, 2002). This can prove

challenging if they are downsized out of their current firm. Many midcareer em-

ployees today are finding that they have to update their skills to work for new em-

ployers and in new fields (see Griffin & Hesketh, Chapter 20, this volume).

Some midcareer employees may also have to confront a number of midlife is-

sues such as an awareness of advancing age and an awareness of death (e.g., their

life is seen as “half over”), an awareness of bodily changes related to aging, a

search for new life goals, a marked change in family relationships, a growing

sense of obsolescence at work, a change in work relationships from being a novice

to a coach, and a feeling of decreased job mobility and increased concern for job

security (Bell, 1982). There are individual differences in the extent to which these

issues become sources of concern (i.e., for some, these are major concerns; for oth-

ers, they are less dramatic).

At work, often midcareer employees must deal with growing obsolescence and

possible plateauing (i.e., limited future promotions). Obsolescence refers to the de-

gree to which employees lack the up-to-date knowledge or skills necessary to

maintain effective performance in their current or future roles (Kaufman, 1974).

They may also feel bored in their jobs or underutilized. In addition, they may feel

less mobile in the job market and thus be more concerned about job security.

Counselors might encourage midcareer employees to participate in life plan-

ning and career planning exercises to address their feelings, reexamine their val-

ues and life goals, and to set new goals or recommit themselves to previous

goals. They might also help them deal with job losses due to organizational re-

structurings or downsizings. See Bobek and Robbins (Chapter 26, this volume)

for more details on job losses.

Counseling sessions can provide midcareer employees with support concern-

ing their midlife experiences and frustrations. It is important to encourage mid-

career employees to develop new skills and a broader perspective on their work.

The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 provides potential governmental support

for worker retraining to provide assistance to those who are unemployed, dis-

placed, or need to have their skills updated. This support might be particularly

beneficial for midcareer employees (Werner, 2002).

It is also helpful to train midcareer employees to serve as coaches and men-

tors to new employees. Thus, the mentor can keep himself or herself up-to-date,

and the new employee can learn from the midcareer employee’s experiences. To

deal with obsolescence, midcareer employees can be encouraged to attend train-

ing programs, workshops, and other retooling programs. They can also be given

challenging assignments, new projects, and rewards linked to performance

(Northrup & Malin, 1986).

ATE

-C

AREER

MPLOYEES

In the United States, the workforce continues to age. It is estimated that by 2008

the median age of the workforce will be greater than it has ever been (Fullerton,

1999). By 2015, more than one-third of all workers will be 50 and over (Brother-

ton, 2000). With the elimination of the mandatory retirement age for most jobs by

the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), more older Americans are

working past the traditional retirement age of 65. As the graying of the workforce

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continues, it is increasingly more important to educate managers, workers, and

career counselors about issues facing late-career employees.

Late-career employees are typically considered to be age 55 to retirement.

Their major tasks are to remain productive in work, maintain self-esteem, and

prepare for effective retirement. This can prove challenging given the negative

stereotypes that many individuals have toward older adults and workers. In par-

ticular, numerous age stereotypes and myths exist about workers over the age of

55. Some of these myths are that they are absent more often, have higher rates of

accidents on jobs, are less productive, are less motivated, are less efficient, and

have higher health care costs (see Czaja, 1995, for a review).

Research indicates that these are myths: There is little relationship between

age and job performance, and reviews have yielded mixed results (Beehr & Bowl-

ing, 2002). Unfortunately, many firms still treat older workers in nonproductive

ways (e.g., by not hiring them for jobs, sending them to training, or giving them

challenging assignments). These practices are illegal based on the ADEA legisla-

tion, which protects workers age 40 and older. It has been noted that age discrim-

ination claims constitute a sizable portion of the Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission (EEOC) caseload, comprising 23.6% of the charges in fiscal year 2002

and on the rise since 1993 (Charge Statistics, 2003).

Negative stereotypes and behaviors toward older workers affect the opportu-

nities and performance of older workers. Older workers report that their biggest

problems are that people underestimate their skills and that they must often con-

vince managers and peers that they are not feeble or stubborn (Gardenswartz &

Rowe, 2000). Managers and counselors can examine the latest research on older

workers and help dispel myths about older workers’ abilities to facilitate the per-

formance of older workers on the job. Counselors can also communicate to em-

ployees the value (e.g., experience, wisdom, institutional memories) that older

workers bring to the workplace.

Supervisors and counselors can develop action plans for enhancing the perfor-

mance of older employees. These plans involve giving older workers more con-

crete feedback, allowing them to serve as mentors, and providing them with

training and cross-training opportunities (i.e., skills development in multiple

functional areas). It is also important that managers and counselors help older

employees deal with career plateaus so that they can continue to be challenged

and productive at work (Allen, Poteet, & Russell, 1998).

At some point, older workers prepare for retirement. It is critical that employ-

ers handle retirement issues effectively since they affect not only the preretirees,

but also the morale of the remaining staff. Supervisors can be instructed on the

changing demographics of the workforce, laws concerning older employees,

stereotypes and realities of the aging process, and strategies for dealing with the

loss of older employees who retire (i.e., the loss of expertise and skills in their de-

partment). These strategies will enable them to be more effective in establishing

retirement plans for their older workers.

To assist preretirees, counselors can encourage them to attend workshops to un-

derstand the life and career concerns they may face as they prepare for retirement.

Topics include health, finances, making the transition from work to retirement sta-

tus, safety, housing, legal affairs, time utilization, social security, second careers,

use of leisure time, and problems of aging. Counselors can offer individual and

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Work Performance and Careers 215

group workshops to communicate information to them. They can also en

courage

spouses to attend since many preretirees’ decisions will also affect their spouses

(e.g., travel, more leisure time). Counselors can provide needed support to help

workers establish an identity in activities outside the work role (e.g., involvement

in the community). (See Sterns & Subich, Chapter 21, this volume, on counseling

for retirement.)

One interesting trend is the increased return of retirees to the workforce. In

fact, they are the fastest growing part of the temporary workforce. Many are

bored with retirement, have high energy levels, and can maintain flexible

schedules (Andrews, 1992). Others need the money and health benefits. Coun-

selors might want to help this returning group readjust to employment after

retirement.

ENERATIONAL

IFFERENCES IN

MPLOYEES

In the United States, there are at least five different generations of individuals in

the workplace (Cascio, 2003; Fisher, 1996). To understand their work perfor-

mance, counselors need to be aware of factors that might impact their perfor-

mance as well as differences in their career interests and behaviors. While there

may be differences in values and behaviors among these groups, there are

within-group differences as well (e.g., not all generation Xers subscribe to the

same beliefs):

•Members of the swing generation (born between 1910 and 1929) are mostly re-

tired from the workforce, but some still remain. Having lived through the

Great Depression and World War II, they were responsible for building the

American economy, which dominated the world for more than 30 years.

They are characterized by a set of values that stresses the need for hard

work, sacrifice, and toughness.

•The silent generation (born between 1930 and 1945) members were smaller in

number and, as a result, were in great demand in organizations. Some of

them attended some of the best colleges and rose rapidly in organizations.

In return, they became the “organization men” by giving their hearts and

souls to their employers and receiving jobs of increased responsibility, pay,

and benefits. Today, some of them hold positions of power as corporate lead-

ers or members of Congress.

•Members of the baby-boom generation (born between 1946 and 1964) currently

account for 55% of the workforce. They believe in rights to privacy, due pro-

cess, and freedom of speech in the workplace. They bring considerable man-

agement and leadership expertise and a large base of knowledge and talent

to organizations. They believe there is a strong link between hard work and

fast promotion up the corporate ladder. Even though times have changed,

many in this generation still believe this to some degree and expect other

workers to adhere to the same hard work principle.

• Generation X or baby busters are those born between 1965 and 1977. They

comprise one-third of the current workforce. Having grown up in times of

rapid change and being witnesses to corporate downsizings, they tend to be

independent and may be less likely to expect the security of long-term

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