Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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ounseling and vocational psychology. Rohan (2000), in a review of introductory

social psychology and personality textbooks, found no discussion of value theory

in the 1990s. There are few work value measures commercially available and fewer

still with sufficient reliability and validity to be recommended for use with clients.

There are several reasons for this state of affairs. Vocational psychology from a

counseling psychology perspective has historically focused on vocational

choice

for high school and college students (Fitzgerald & Rounds, 1989), a population for

which the assessment emphasis has been on vocational interests (Rounds, 1

990).

Work values are considered to be most applicable to individuals who have had

some experience in the workplace, an adult clientele who are not frequently seen

at college counseling centers. The critical loss of the work value research pro-

grams of Super and of Dawis and Lofquist has probably also played an important

role in the decline in empirical research.

Several developments may, however, revitalize research on work values. One

development is the study of values from a social-cultural approach (Hofstede,

2001; Smith & Schwartz, 1997). A second development has been the Occupational

Information Network’s (O*NET; Peterson, Mumford, Borman, Jeanneret, & Fleish-

man, 1999) adoption of the Minnesota work adjustment assessment model for

needs and values (Dawis, Chapter 1, this volume; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; see also

Gore & Hitch, Chapter 16, this volume), providing the potential to link need and

value scores to the wide range of career-relevant information on all occupations

in the U.S. Department of Labor’s O*NET database. This chapter highlights these

recent developments and focuses on major contributions to the study of values,

the development of measures, and the linking of values to important work-related

outcomes. We first review the concept of needs and values in detail, laying a con-

ceptual foundation for the application of value measures. Second, we survey and

define the content domain of work values. Since work values have typically been

studied within a person-environment fit tradition, we then describe the variety of

research coming from this tradition that supports the ways that values are applied.

We end this chapter with a review of work value measures and their use in career

counseling.

CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

Several conceptual distinctions can be made between needs and values, but a close

reading of the literature leads us to question some of these distinctions when ap-

plied to the practice of career counseling. Similarly, distinctions are made

be-

tween general or life values and work values, but few studies have examined the

relations between these two types of values (Roe & Ester, 1999). This lack of re-

search leaves open a number of important questions. Do work values emerge from

general values as individuals interact with work? Alternatively, do work values

influence general values? These questions are similar to the issue of multiple

roles and values: Do different values become salient as a person moves from one

role to another? Should general value measures such as the Study of Values (All-

port, Vernon, & Lindzey, 1970) be used in career assessment, or is it best to use

work-specific value measures such as the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire?

Answers to these questions have practical implications for assessment. Similar

questions arise from attempts to distinguish work values and vocational inter-

ests. An understanding of the relations between them and their connection to

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cupations would influence many assessment practices. What is the best way to

link the assessment of interests and values? In many cases, the literature has no

clear answers to these conceptual and practical concerns.

EEDS

The concept of psychological needs in modern psychology can be traced to Henry

Murray’s (1938) person-environment, need-press theory. Murray proposed a list

of psychological needs that were important to human behavior. Needs refer to how

the individual feels, behaves, or reacts. Press is defined as what the environ

ment

can do to facilitate or hinder the fulfillment of needs. The combination of indi-

vidual needs and environmental press can be used to explain a wide variety of

behaviors. The impact of Murray’s theory can be seen on more recent person-

nvironment conceptualizations of needs and values.

Many writers have regarded needs and values as equivalent. For example,

Maslow (1954, 1959) viewed needs and values as similar and, at times, he used

these te

rms interchangeably. Rokeach (1973), however, saw needs as biologically

derived and values as cognitive representations of those needs subject to influ-

ence by social and institutional demands. The need for sex, for example, is cogni-

tively transformed such that love or intimacy is valued as a result. Super (1962,

1995) saw needs as the manifestation of physiological conditions related to sur-

vival. Super, like Rokeach (1973), viewed needs as refined through interactions

with the environment, leading to the development of values. The resulting values

are objectives used to satisfy needs through interest activities. Super (1995) de-

scribed the needs-value-interests link as such: Valuing material things may lead

individuals to seek wealth, and people generally seek wealth through an interest

such as managerial and remunerative occupations. In Super’s example, value at-

tainment is also linked to occupational choice, as individuals tend to choose oc-

cupations that provide opportunities to fulfill values.

Much of the research on needs comes from theories of work motivation in or-

ganizational psychology. Work motivation theories attempt to explain the context

and processes that account for an individual’s energy, direction of effort, and

maintenance of that effort in a work setting. One group of work motivation theo-

ries is based directly on the concept of needs, appropriately called need theories.

The need theories that are most prominent in work motivation are Herzberg,

Mausner, and Snyderman’s (1959) hygienes-motivators theory, Maslow’s (1954,

1959) self-actualization theory, and Alderfer’s (1969) existence-relatedness-growth

eory. Need theories propose that needs energize and direct an individual’s be-

havior toward satisfaction of those needs. Therefore, an assessment of needs may

provide important insight into the motivational forces underlying career-related

decisions.

An important contribution of need theories is the identification and classifica-

tion of needs. These need theories are often viewed as taxonomies of motivational

variables. For example, Maslow classified needs into five categories: physiological,

security, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Need theories were popular

during the 1960s and 1970s, but interest in these models eventually declined, prob-

ably due to a failure to obtain empirical support (see Campbell & Pritchard, 1976).

Kanfer (1991) reviewed work-motivation theories placing need and expec

tancy

theories together since intrinsic motives, needs, and values are hypothesized to

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activate and direct behavior. Expectancy/valence theories introduced a cognitive

mediation role for needs and values to explain the process of work motivation.

Kanfer criticized these person-centered approaches for “not specifying the

medi-

ating processes by which motivational energy is transformed and/or directed to-

ward specific behaviors or patterns of action” (p. 83). These criticisms are also

applicable to life value models (e.g., Brown, 1996; Super, 1995).

ALUES

Essential to understanding work values is knowledge of value theory and thought

in social psychology. The development of values can be traced to the philosopher

Spranger’s (1928) six basic types of individuality: theoretical, economic, aes-

thetic, social, political, and religious. Allport and Vernon’s (1931) Study of Values,

the first systematic attempt to measure values, was based on Spranger’s theory

and his six basic values. For Allport, values are “propriate” functioning, meaning

that people are motivated to act in a manner that is expressive of the self. A value

is “a belief upon which a man [sic] acts by preference” (Allport, 1961, p. 454).

Much of the early research and practice used broad value measures such as the

Study of Values to assess work-relevant values.

Since Allport, many other researchers have contributed to the broad study of

values, including concepts that are important to our current understanding of

work values. One such contribution is Rokeach’s (1973) theoretical writing and

his Value Survey, both of which renewed interest in the study of values. As with

Allport, for Rokeach, values are beliefs with some means or end of action that are

judged to be desirable or undesirable. Because values are beliefs, they can have

cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Rokeach saw values as enduring

but less stable than traits and identified two kinds of values: instrumental and

terminal. Instrumental values are beliefs concerning desirable modes of conduct

(e.g., ambitious, obedient). Terminal values are beliefs concerning desirable end

states of existence (e.g., comfortable life, equality). The distinction between in-

strumental and terminal values unites several different approaches to the study

of values (e.g., Maslow, 1959).

Rokeach (1973) believed that values are central to understanding behavior. Al-

though not taking such a broad view of values, Brown (1996; Brown & Crace, 1996)

proposed a value model to account for human motivation that outlines the func-

tion of values in decision making and the impact that values have on the outcome

of life choices. Similar to Rokeach, Brown and Crace define values as cognitive

representations, transformations of needs, providing standards, orienting people

to desired end states, and enduring. Compared to other definitions, they empha-

size an internal, cognitive mediated function of values as the basis of human

motivation.

Needs and values are rarely the central components of theories in vocational

counseling and psychology. An exception is the Theory of Work Adjustment

(Dawis, Chapter 1, this volume; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984), which uses needs and

values as explanatory constructs. Values in the Theory of Work Adjustment are

part of the work personality that also includes abilities and needs. Vocational

needs are reinforcing conditions that have been found to be important to job satis-

faction. Values are defined in terms of vocational needs as “second-order needs,”

or “underlying common elements of needs” (see Dawis, 2001; Dawis & Lofquist,

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Assessment of Needs and Values 309

1984, pp. 83–86). Essentially, values are reference dimensions for needs, primar-

ily defined by data reduction techniques such as factor analysis. Values can also

be described in terms of work environment reinforcer systems, reflecting the

kinds of work reinforcers that are important for an individual.

Super (1995) argued that vocational needs in the Theory of Work Adjustment

are similar to his values (see also Macnab & Fitzsimmons, 1987). Operationally,

this is true. The measures developed by Super (1970) and Dawis and Lofquist

(1984) use similar constructs to describe either needs or values. When examined

closely, it is evident that need items in the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire

(MIQ; Rounds, Henly, Dawis, Lofquist, & Weiss, 1981) and value items in Work

Va lues Inventory (Super, 1970) both assess the relative importance of work out-

comes to the person. The difference in terminology is due to the origins of the

Theory of Work Adjustment. Dawis and Lofquist drew their ideas from Schaffer’s

(1953) research on job satisfaction and the behavioral tradition of Skinner (1938)

with its emphasis on reinforcement (Lofquist & Dawis, 1991), whereas Super

drew his ideas from the developmental work of Buehler (1933) and Ginzberg,

Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (1951).

Schwartz (1992) provides an up-to-date summary of how values have been con-

ceptualized in psychology (see also Rohan, 2000). Schwartz reported that five fea-

tures of values are frequently discussed in the value literature. Values:

1. Are beliefs.

2. Pertain to desirable end states of behaviors.

3. Guide selection or evaluation of behaviors and events.

4. Remain stable across context and time.

5. Are ordered in terms of relative importance.

Va lues, therefore, are stable motivational constructs that represent broad goals

and, like traits, apply across context and time (Schwartz, 1994). Among value re-

searchers, Schwartz currently has the most active research program. He has stud-

ied the structural relations of values across cultures (Schwartz, 1992), the

relations of values and behaviors (Bardi & Schwartz, 2003), and has applied his

theory of cultural values to work (Schwartz, 1999).

ISTINCTIONS FROM

ELATED

ONCEPTS

Researchers have grappled with several conceptual issues surrounding the defini-

tion of values, the first of which involves the distinction between life values and

work values. Research into life values has tended to ignore developments in the field

of work values. For example, two attempts to apply Schwartz’s model of cultural

values to the world of work fall short in their understanding of work values (Ros,

Schwartz, & Surkiss, 1999; Schwartz, 1999). Ros et al. (1999) used Schwartz’s 10 cul-

tural values to derive only four work values (intrinsic, extrinsic, social, and mixed),

a number that is far smaller than what is found in most work value taxonomies.

Work value research, however, has clearly been influenced by mainstream

studies on life values (Dawis, 1991; Ronen, 1994). Elizur and Sagie (1999), for ex-

ample, began with a multifaceted definition of life and work values and then

gen

erated both life and work value items. They reported that the structure

within work and life domains was similar, but that life and work values occupied

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two distinct regions in a three-dimensional conical structure. Life values were lo-

ated at the base of the cone and work values at the top, suggesting that context

is important for values assessment. One interesting issue that emerges from this

research is the notion of compensatory models: Can fulfillment of a value

through work compensate for its nonfulfillment in other life situations, or vice

versa? Such value compensation has potentially important implications for

career counseling, as clients may choose from different roles and environments

to achieve a sense of value fulfillment in their lives. Research that is applicable to

the life and w

ork role distinction involves conflicts between work and family de-

mands. Perrewe and Hochwarter (2001), for example, have proposed a model to

capture work and family values as they relate to work-family conflict and out-

comes. Studies examining the interrelations between work and life values are an

emerging area of research, leaving this topic open for additional research and the

emergence of new approaches.

The second issue, especially important to career counseling, is how needs, val-

ues, and interests are distinct but interrelated concepts. Super (1995) defined in-

terests as preferences for activities in which individuals expect to attain or

satisfy their needs and values. An interest, then, is one of the many manifesta-

tions of a value. For example, altruism (the value of helping others) leads a person

to prefer social occupations (i.e., an interest in work where there will be an op-

portunity to help others). However, pairing values and interests is rarely this

simple because values can often be linked to several different interest areas. For

example, the value of achievement can be linked to investigative, artistic, and en-

terprising interests. A more sophisticated application would link a pattern of

values and needs to different interest areas (Armstrong, Day, & Rounds, 2003).

Therefore, a critical issue in the use of values and other assessment measures in

career counseling is the ability to link together information from different sources

to create a multifaceted picture of the individual and relevant career choices.

Dawis (1991) reviewed the conceptual definitions of interest and values and

concluded that distinguishing between values and interests is difficult at the con-

ceptual level, leading applied psychologists to prefer operational definitions.

From an operational point of view, interests involve liking/disliking, and values

involve importance/unimportance. This perspective makes it easy to distinguish

between value and interest measures: Value measures ask individuals to rate the

importance of items, whereas interest measures ask individuals to rate their lik-

ing of items. However, from a counseling standpoint, the lack of a clear concep-

tual distinction suggests that values and interests may be intertwined for many

clients who are making career-related decisions.

CONTENT DOMAIN OF VALUES

A key to the study and assessment of values is to decide what values to measure

and how these values are interrelated. To develop a measure of values or to eval-

uate an existing measure, researchers need to address three questions: What are

the substantive contents (definition) of values? How comprehensive is the sample

of values generated by the definition? How are the relations among values struc-

tured? We review four research programs and describe how these programs

dress these questions. The research programs reviewed are Dawis and Lofquist

(1984), Super (Super & Sverko, 1995), Ronen (1994), and Schwartz (1992).

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Assessment of Needs and Values 311

AWIS AND

OFQUIST

’

HEORY OF

ORK

DJUSTMENT

In the theory of work adjustment, the vocational needs measured by the MIQ

(Rounds et al., 1981) are grouped into six work values, creating a hierarchical tax-

onomy (see Table 13.1). In this model, values are conceptualized as reference di-

mensions and latent variables for the description of needs. Studies of the factor

structure of the 20 vocational needs in the MIQ have yielded a six-dimensional

structure of work values. The six values can also be described in terms of work re-

wards that can satisfy the cluster of needs. The work environment descriptions

for the six values are:

1. Achievement: an environment that encourages accomplishment.

2. Comfort: an environment that is comfortable and nonstressful.

3. Status: an environment that provides recognition and prestige.

4. Altruism: an environment that fosters harmony with and service to others.

5. Safety: an environment that is predictable.

6. Autonomy: an environment that stimulates initiative.

Table 13.1

6 Work Values and 21 Needs

Work Value Need Item

Achievement Ability utilization

Achievement

I could do something that makes use of my abilities.

The job could give me a feeling of accomplishment.

Comfort Activity

Independence

Variety

Compensation

Security

Working conditions

I could be busy all the time.

I could work alone on the job.

I could do something different each day.

My pay would compare well with that of other workers.

The job could provide for steady employment.

The job would have good working conditions.

Status Advancement

Recognition

Authority

Social status

The job would provide an opportunity for advancement.

I could get the recognition for the work I do.

I could tell people what to do.

I could be “somebody” in the community.

Altruism Co-workers

Social service

Moral values

My coworkers would be easy to make friends with.

I could do things for other people.

I could do the work without feeling that it is morally

wrong.

Safety Company policies

Supervision-human

Supervision-tech

The company would administer its policies fairly.

My boss would back up the workers with top man-

agement.

My boss would train the workers well.

Autonomy Autonomy

Creativity

Responsibility

I could plan my work with little supervision.

I could try out some of my own ideas.

I could make decisions on my own.

Source: A Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment, by R. V. and L. H. Lofquist, 1984, Minneapolis:

University of Minnesota Press.

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Dawis and Lofquist have also conceptualized three bipolar value dimensions:

achievement versus comfort, altruism versus status, and safety versus autonomy.

These dimensions are crossed with three types of rewards: self (achievement,

autonomy), social (altruism, status), and environment (comfort, safety). The

sult

ing structure graphically represents these opposing sets of values and three

major c

lasses of rewards.

This six-value structure was first identified in factor analyses of MIQ data in

separate samples of 3,033 employed workers, 1,621 vocational rehabilitation clients,

19 college students, and 285 vocational-technical students (Gay, Weiss, Hendel,

Dawis, & Lofquist, 1971). This same six-factor structure was replicated across

eight sex-by-age samples of 9,377 vocational rehabilitation clients (Lofquist &

Dawis, 1978). The MIQ was revised for the O*NET (see Gore & Hitch, Chapter 16,

this volume), producing the Work Importance Profiler and Work Importance

cator (WIP and WIL; McCloy et al., 1999b, 1999c). In the development of the

computerized form of the WIP, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses

were conducted to evaluate the six-factor work values model. Results provided

moderate support for Dawis and Lofquist’s model, although the MIQ and WIP fit

a seven-factor model better than the six-factor model. The seven-factor structure

is similar to the six-factor structure, with the critical difference being that the

comfort value splits into internal comfort (activity, independence, and variety)

and external comfort (compensation, security, and working conditions). In prac-

tice, the six-factor work value model (with a single comfort value) continues to be

used when presenting results to career counseling clients.

UPER

’

HEORY OF

AREER

EVELOPMENT

Much of Super’s final research on work values came from the Work Importance

Study (WIS; Super & Sverko, 1995). One objective of the WIS was to investigate the

relative importance of work compared to other activities and to study the rewards

that youth and adults seek in their major life roles across cultures. In a series of

studies (see Ferreira-Marques & Miranda, 1995), decisions were made about the

kinds of life and work values to assess and how to assess them. The items compos-

ing these values scales, with the exception of the working conditions value scale,

had both work- and non-work-related items. The list of values used in the WIS is

shown in Table 13.2. As expected, many of the values (e.g., ability utilization, aes-

thetics, creativity) could be attained in multiple roles and situations. Other values

are tied more specifically to work roles (e.g., economics, working conditions, ad-

vancement) or to nonwork roles (personal development, lifestyle).

Also shown in Table 13.2 are the five value orientations identified in a princi-

pal components analysis of 18,318 participants from 10 countries: Australia, Bel-

gium (Flanders), Canada, Croatia, Italy, Japan, Poland, Portugal, South Africa,

and the United States (Sverko, 1995). Many of the participants were students from

secondary schools. The five value orientations (Sverko, p. 228) are:

1. Utilitarian orientation: the importance of economic conditions and material

career progress.

2. Individualistic orientation: the importance of an autonomous way of living.

3. Orientation toward self-actualization: the importance of inner-oriented goals

for personal development and self-realization.

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Assessment of Needs and Values 313

4. Social orientation: the importance of social interaction.

5. Adventurous orientation: the importance of risk.

In studies of the factor congruence across samples, only the utilitarian and

dividualistic value orientations showed generalizability. Sverko (1995) specu-

lated that the lack of generalizability for the self-actualization, social, and adven-

turous orientations may be due to intergroup differences and sampling errors.

Another possible reason is that the structure of values may differ across second-

ary students, college students, and adults.

Table 13.2

5 Value Orientations, 18 Work Values, and Sample Items

Orientation Value Sample Item

Utilitarian Economics

Advancement

Prestige

(Authority)

(Achievement)

Have a high standard of living.

Get ahead.

Be admired for my knowledge and skills.

Tell others what to do.

Have results which show that I have done

well.

Individualistic Life-Style

Autonomy

(Creativity)

(Variety)

Living according to my ideas.

Act on my own.

Discover, develop, or design new things.

Have every day different in some way from

the one before it.

Self-actualization

Ability utilization

Personal development

(Altruism)

(Achievement)

Aesthetics

(Creativity)

Use my skill and knowledge.

Develop as a person.

Help people with problems.

Have results which show that I have done

well.

Make life more beautiful.

Discover, develop, or design new things.

Social Social interaction

Social relations

(Variety)

(Altruism)

Do things with other people.

Be with friends.

Have every day different in some way from

the one before it.

Help people with problems.

Adventurous Risk

(Physical activity)

(Authority)

Do risky things.

Get a lot of exercise.

Tell others what to do.

Note: Work values in parentheses have salient loadings on more than one orientation or did not

load on this orientation for all samples examined. The value of working conditions did not have

salient loadings on the orientations. Cultural identity and physical prowess values were not in-

cluded in the cross-cultural analyses.

Source: “The Structure and Hierarchy of Values Viewed Cross-Nationally,” pp. 225–240, by

B. Sverko, i

n Life Roles, Values, and Careers: International Findings of the Work Importance

Study, D. E. Super and B. Sverko, eds., 1995, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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ONEN

’

AXONOMY OF

EEDS

Ronen (1994) has proposed a facet model of values based on Hofstede’s (1980) 14

work values linked to major need classifications. These work values, and corre-

sponding items, are shown in Table 13.3. Hofstede’s study of work values in 50 na-

tions, with a sample of 117,000 IBM employees, has had a major impact on

cross-cultural research, but has received little attention in the area of vocational

counseling. Although Hofstede derived four cultural dimensions (power dis-

tance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and un-

certainty avoidance) from his 14 work values, these factors have rarely been

replicated (see Smith & Schwartz, 1997; Spector, Cooper, & Sparks, 2001).

Ronen (1994) conducted a series of studies in various countries and cultures that

evaluated a common taxonomy of needs. This hierarchical taxonomy linked Hofst-

ede’s work values to the need classifications of Maslow (1954), Alderfer (1969),

and

Herzberg et al. (1959). For example, as shown in Table 13.3, Maslow’s physio-

logical and security category contains the work values of working condi

tions, area,

Table 13.3

14 Work Values and Items Classified According to Maslow’s Need Taxonomy

Need Work Value Item

Security Area

Time

Security

Benefits

Physical

Live in an area desirable to you and your family.

Have a job which leaves you sufficient time for your per-

sonal or family life.

Have the security that you will be able to work for your

company as long as you want to.

Have good fringe benefits.

Have good physical working conditions (good ventilation

and lightening, adequate work space, etc.).

Social Co-workers

Manager

Work with people who cooperate well with one another.

Have a good working relationship with your manager.

Ego/Power Recognition

Advancement

Earnings

Get the recognition you deserve when you do a good job.

Have the opportunity for advancement to higher level jobs.

Have an opportunity for high earnings.

Self-

actualization

Challenge

Autonomy

Skills

Training

Have challenging work to do—work from which you get a

personal sense of accomplishment.

Have considerable freedom to adopt your own approach

to the job.

Fully use your skills and abilities on the job accomplish-

ment.

Have training opportunities (to improve your skills or to

learn new skills).

Note: Adapted from S. Ronen, “An Underlying Structure of Motivational Need Taxonomies: A

Cross-Cultural Confirmation,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 4,

H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, and L. M. Hough, eds., Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist

Press, 1994, pp. 241–270.

Source:

Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, by G. Hofstede,

1980, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

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Assessment of Needs and Values 315

personal time, security, benefits, and earnings. The samples included employees

from Canada, China, France, Israel, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Japan.

These employees rated the importance of Hofstede’s (1980) 14 work values. Struc-

tural analyses using multidimensional scaling and facet analysis yielded two-

dimensions (collectivistic versus individualistic and materialistic versus

humanistic) that supported Ronen’s hierarchical value-need classification. Over-

all, Ronen’s classification seems robust, having been replicated across countries.

CHWARTZ

’

IRCUMPLEX

ODEL OF

ALUES

Schwartz (1992) grouped value types according to common goals, reasoning

that basic human values in all cultures would represent biological needs, social

interaction, and group functioning. Informed by values identified by previous

researchers and discussed in philosophical and religious writing, Schwartz de-

veloped and classified values into 10 motivational types, assumed to represent

the range of values found across cultures:

1. Power: Social status, prestige, control or dominance.

2. Achievement: Personal success through competence according to social

standards.

3. Hedonism: Pleasure or sensuous gratification for self.

4. Stimulation: Excitement, novelty, challenge.

5. Self-direction: Independence of thought and action, creating, exploring.

Universalism: Understanding, tolerance, protection of all people and nature.

7. Benevolence: Preserving and enhancing the welfare of people.

8. Tradition: Respect and commitment to cultural or religious customs.

9. Conformity: Restraint of actions and impulses that may upset or harm oth-

ers or violate social norms.

10. Security: Safety and stability of society, relationships, and self.

A key aspect of Schwartz’s value theory is the structural relations among val-

ues. The 10 values are organized according to the idea that the pursuit of a value

has consequences that can be congruent with, or in conflict with, other values.

For example, the pursuit of conformity may conflict with the pursuit of self-

direction in cases where both values are important to the individual. The values

are arranged in a circular fashion, beginning with power and ending with secu-

rity, portraying the patterns of congruency and conflict. Conflicting values are

opposite on the circle, and congruent values are adjacent. Along the perimeter,

the distance between any two values is a measure of the similarity of the motiva-

tions expressed by the value; those that are closer are more similar in motivation.

Schwartz’s model, with its emphasis on the properties of a circumplex, is similar

to Holland’s (1997) vocational interest circle and may eventually have important

implications for counseling.

OMPARISON OF

ALUE

LASSIFICATIONS

How comprehensive and similar are the value taxonomies? To answer this ques-

tion, we inspected the need and value definitions and items of three classifica-

tions—Dawis and Lofquist, Super, and Ronen—and then matched

similar values.

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