Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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316

Table 13.4

Comparison of Similar Categories in Dawis and Lofquist’s Work Values/Needs, Ronen’s

Classification of Hofstede’s (1980) Work Values, and Super’s Work Orientations/Values

Dawis/Lofquist Hofstede Super

Achievement Self-Actualization Self-Actualization

Ability utilization Skills Ability utilization

Achievement Challenge

Autonomy Individualistic

Creativity Creativity

Responsibility

Autonomy Autonomy Autonomy

Training

Personal development

Life-Style

Aesthetics

Variety

Status Ego/Power Utilitarian

Advancement Advancement Advancement

Recognition Recognition Achievement

Authority Authority

Social status Prestige

Economics

Altruism Social Social

Co-Workers Co-Workers Social relations

Social service Altruism

Moral values

Manager

Social interaction

Comfort Security

Security Security

Compensation Benefits

Working conditions Physical Working conditions

Activity

Independence

Variety

Area

Time

Safety

Company policies and practices

Supervision—human relations

Supervision—technical

Adventurous

Risk

Physical activity

Sources: A Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment, by R. V. and L. H. Lofquist, 1984, Min-

neapolis: University of Minnesota Press; “An Underlying Structure of Motivational Need Tax-

onomies: A Cross-Cultural Confirmation,” pp. 241–270, by S. Ronen, in Handbook of Industrial and

Organizational Psychology, vol. 4, H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, and L. M. Hough, eds., 1994,

Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press; Culture’s Consequences: International Differences

in Work-Related Values, by G. Hofstede, 1980, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage; and Life Roles, Values,

and Careers: International Findings of the Work Importance Study, by D. E. Super and B. Sverko,

1995, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Assessment of Needs and Values 317

The results of this evaluation lead to the taxonomy shown in Table

13.4, which il-

lustrates their similarity to one another. For example, all three classifications

have a value that emphasizes the importance of an environment that provides

recognition and prestige. Dawis and Lofquist’s label for the value is status,

Super’s label is utilitarian, and Ronen’s label is ego/power.

There is considerable overlap among value classifications listed in Table 13.4,

with Dawis and Lofquist having the most comprehensive work value system. Nei-

ther Super nor Hofstede includes organizational values similar to Dawis and

Lofquist’s safety value. It is surprising that Super’s classification includes only

one value—working conditions—in the category that Dawis and Lofquist label

comfort, and which Ronen calls security. Super’s classification, however, contains

general values (e.g., personal development) that are not necessarily tied to a work

setting but that do allow for a values assessment across other environments. But

a comparison with Schwartz’s model indicates that several life values are missing

from Super’s system, such as hedonism, universalism, benevolence, tradition, and

conformity.

Nord et al. (1990) suggested that models of work values are deficient because

they omit several critical elements individuals might want from work. These in-

clude spiritual dimensions, the relationship between producers and customers,

and the nature of the product relative to its ability to satisfy important human

needs. It might be noted, however, that Dawis and Lofquist’s moral values, in the

altruism category, partially addresses the spiritual dimension and the nature of

the product dimension. Super’s altruism, contained in the social category, may

partially represent the producer and customer relationship dimension. Similarly,

several of the values identified by Schwartz (1996) seem to fit in Nord et al.’s

omitted categories, including universalism, benevolence, and tradition.

The question of which taxonomy is most representative of the domain of values

depends partly on the area of research interest or clinical application. Schwartz

(1992) has the most comprehensive set of life values, making this taxonomy an ap-

propriate choice for use in general investigations. Dawis and Lofquist’s taxonomy

seems to be the best available description of work values and would be the most

appropriate for exploring career development issues or other aspects of the world

of work. Nevertheless, more study of the domain of work values is required be-

fore researchers and practitioners can claim to be measuring the full spectrum of

values relevant to people’s work lives. Additional research is also needed to clar-

ify the relations between work and life values.

PERSON-ENVIRONMENT PERSPECTIVE

Work value measures are designed to measure the importance of work outcomes

expected to be related to satisfaction. It is not surprising that an established

finding is that work values predict job satisfaction (for reviews, see Dawis, 1991;

Kristof, 1996; Locke, 1976; Ronen, 1994). Work values have also been shown to be

related to job choice (Judge & Bretz, 1992), tenure (Bretz & Judge, 1994), com-

mitment and cohesion (Boxx, Odom, & Dunn, 1991), intentions to quit (Chat-

man, 1991), turnover (O’Reilly, Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991), and self-report

ratings of teamwork (Posner, 1992). Research on the value-outcome link has

been concerned with how work values and work environments are related to

outcomes. These relations are usually studied from a person-environment (P-E)

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perspective, in which various forms of P-E fit have been studied, including

person-vocation, person-job, person-organization, and person-group (for re-

views, see Kristof, 1996, and Meglino & Ravlin, 1998). In a special issue on P-E

fit, Schneider (2001) identifies two major traditions: individual differences and

organizational psychology. These traditions are based on different conceptual

models and research approaches.

The individual differences tradition focuses on the person variable (values)

first and the environment variable second. Individual outcomes (e.g., satisfac-

tion, attitudes, performance) are studied rather than environmental outcomes

(e.g., cooperation, absenteeism, employee turnover). Super (Super & Sverko,

1995), Brown (Brown & Crace, 1996), and Dawis and Lofquist (1984) are exam-

ples of research programs in the individual differences tradition. The major dif-

ference among them is how environments are conceptualized. Dawis and

Lofquist have emphasized work environments almost exclusively. For Super and

Brown, environments are roles (e.g., work, family, marital, leisure), the salience

of which depends on the values held and the values being satisfied within roles.

Lofquist and Dawis (1991) have broadened their theory, now referred to as

person-environment-correspondence theory, and expanded their idea of envi-

ronments to include roles, groups, organizations, and cultures.

Unlike other individual differences models, Dawis and Lofquist (1984) explic-

itly attempted to assess environments. They developed occupational reinforcer

patterns (Stewart et al., 1986) and occupational classifications (Dawis, Dohm,

Lofquist, Chartrand, & Due, 1987) to match with clients’ value profiles. In contrast,

uper (1980; Super & Sverko, 1995) was concerned with the salience of different

life roles rather than occupational matching. These approaches lead to different

practical research applications. Super’s approach aims primarily at value clarifi-

cation within the context of major life roles, where work is only one such role. As-

sessment of life values is preferred and is used to promote active consideration of

values and how the values relate to roles. Value-role fit is not directly assessed.

The client makes the judgment of the value-role fit and implicitly relates that fit

to criteria (choice, satisfaction, performance). Lofquist and Dawis, on the other

hand, focus on using value data in the work role to identify occupations that may

match (reinforce) the individual’s values.

A study by Rounds, Dawis, and Lofquist (1987) illustrates the latter approach.

They compared career-counseling clients’ need and value profiles with occupa-

tional reinforcer patterns to determine fit or correspondence. Occupational rein-

forcer patterns are independent ratings by supervisors or other incumbents of the

relative presence of work reinforcers in specific occupations. The correspondence

score, a measure of profile similarity between the individual’s needs/values and

occupational reinforcer patterns, is then correlated with job satisfaction. Corre-

spondence was found to account for between 3% and 30% of the variance in job

satisfaction.

Edwards (1991) has criticized the profile similarity approach and has suggested

a “variance components” approach to studying person-environment fit. The profile

approach does not evaluate the independent contributions of person or environ-

ment to work outcomes and may obscure individual variables that make up the

profile. Edwards (1991) proposes using a moderated regression by entering the per-

son (e.g., value) and environment (e.g., occupational reinforcer) components before

the interaction components in the prediction of work outcomes (e.g., satisfaction).

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Assessment of Needs and Values 319

This assumes that people with certain person characteristics (e.g., values) may be

more satisfied than others and that some environmental aspects (e.g., occupational

reinforcers) may be more satisfying.

Despite such criticism, the profile similarity methodology is defensible. The pri-

mary objective of measuring P-E fit, as applied by vocational or personnel psychol-

ogists, is to identify or recommend jobs or occupations that fit the values of the

client or job candidate. This is consistent with the individual differences tradition

of developing and evaluating the validity of P-E fit indexes and methods that match

the unique profile of an individual’s characteristics to different jobs or occupa-

tions. In comparison, the organizational psychology tradition focuses primarily on

the environmental variable (i.e., job characteristics). The primary objective of this

approach is to improve job satisfaction and other work-related outcomes (e.g., in-

crease productivity) by modifying characteristics of the work environment. Hack-

man and Oldham’s (1980) job characteristics model is a prototype of this approach

in studying job satisfaction (see Fritzsche & Parrish, Chapter 8, this volume).

More recently, the organizational psychology approach has used a variance

component approach to study P-E fit. Taris and Feij’s (2001) study is an example

of the variance components approach to studying interaction. Their study fo-

cused on the relationship of values (extrinsic, intrinsic, and social) and organi-

zational supplies (extrinsic, intrinsic, and social) to work outcomes (job

satisfaction, intention to leave, and well-being). Supplies are job characteristics

that satisfy the individual’s work values. The data for all three components

were collected from the same person. Edwards’ (1991) moderated regression

analysis was used to evaluate contribution of main effects and interaction ef-

fects for values and supplies simultaneously. Taris and Feij reported that per-

ceived supplies had a greater effect than values on job satisfaction and

intentions to leave but that work values moderated the relations of perceived

supplies to intention to leave. The moderation effect for intentions to leave oc-

curred among workers who regard the supplies as important, as these workers

were more likely to leave a job where supplies were low than were workers who

did not regard the supplies as important. Other studies (e.g., Hesketh & Gard-

ner, 1993; Livingstone, Nelson, & Barr, 1997; Meyer, Irving, & Allen, 1998) have

also found that work characteristics, when compared to values, account for

most of the variance in work outcomes.

The methodology used by Taris and Feij (2001) and others has been criticized

(Hesketh & Gardner, 1993; Schneider, 2001) because the person, environment, and

outcome components were obtained from the same source. It is not surprising,

therefore, that perceived supplies have a greater effect on satisfaction since employ-

ees rated the perceived availability of supplies at their job at the same time as they

completed a job satisfaction measure. There is a substantial potential to confound-

ing environmental perceptions and satisfaction with this methodology, whereas the

value measure was not as closely tied to the work environment. This confounding

could increase the contribution of supplies and reduce the contribution of values for

predicting satisfaction. Despite these criticisms, we agree with Hesketh and Gard-

ner’s (1993) point that more attention should be focused on perceived work environ-

ments in career counseling (see also Fritzsche & Parrish, Chapter 8, this volume).

It is clear from this brief review that work values, when studied from a P-E

perspective, have considerable power in explaining work- and organizational-

related behavior. These effects have been shown using individual differences,

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organizational psychology, and cross-cultural approaches to studying P-E fit.

We next examine work value measures and their use from a career counseling

perspective.

A PPLICATION OF VALUES MEASURES

IN CAREER COUNSELING

We begin with a review of the Dawis and Lofquist’s (1984) Minnesota Importance

Questionnaire. Next, we discuss the O*NET-based value measures that have been

based on the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire. Finally, we examine Super’s

work value measures (Nevill & Super, 1986a, 1986b). Each of these measures is

discussed within the context of career counseling.

INNESOTA

MPORTANCE

UESTIONNAIRE

The Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ; Gay et al., 1971; Rounds et al.,

1981) is a rationally derived measure of 20 vocational needs organized under six

work-related values based on the Theory of Work Adjustment (Dawis & Lofquist,

1984). This measure was developed as part of the Work Adjustment Project at the

University of Minnesota. The MIQ reflects a P-E fit approach to career counsel-

ing (Rounds & Tracey, 1990), which assumes that individuals will seek a work

environment that matches their behavioral dispositions, including both needs

and abilities. Vocational needs are viewed as a subset of a larger set of personal-

ity needs and are especially important for understanding how individuals can

identify career choices that will lead to satisfaction through reinforcement.

Work-related reinforcers are stimulus conditions that are associated with the

performance of work-related behaviors, and vocational needs are preferences for

different reinforcers. The purpose of the MIQ is to help individuals identify the

relative importance of each reinforcer for themselves and link these preferences

to different occupational choices. In a counseling setting, the MIQ can be used to

help identify the needs that are most important to the individual and then iden-

tify work environments that offer corresponding reinforcers. Comparisons

between an individual’s needs and the reinforcer patterns of different occupa-

tions provide a systematic way to explore the world of work and identify career

choices that are most likely to be satisfying.

There are two forms available for the MIQ. One is a 210-item paired-comparison

form that includes 190 forced-choice items, where respondents are asked to

choose between two need statements, and 20 absolute scale rating items, where

respondents are asked to indicate the importance of each of the needs. The other

is a multiple rank-order form where the forced-choice items are replaced by a

series of items asking respondents to rank the relative importance of sets of five

needs. Both versions are pencil-and-paper measures contained in a booklet with a

separate answer sheet that is completed by the respondent and sent to the publisher

for scoring. As noted in its manual (Rounds et al., 1981), the MIQ has excellent psy-

chometric characteristics, including good internal consistency and test-retest relia-

bility scale scores, which suggests that the MIQ is a reliable mea

sure that assesses

individual characteristics that tend to remain stable over time. Data collected as

part of the University of Minnesota Work Adjustment Project also demonstrate

that MIQ scores are predictive of job satisfaction (see Dawis & Lofquist, 1984).

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Assessment of Needs and Values 321

The Minnesota Importance Questionnaire and Career Counseling Strategies for using

MIQ results in counseling are outlined in the MIQ manual (Rounds et al., 1981).

The first step in interpretation is to examine the logically consistent triad (LCT)

score, an index of the nonrandomness of the client’s response pattern. A number

of factors can contribute to random responding, in which case results may reflect

the individual’s inability to choose among different options or may reflect some

problem in the assessment process, including poor understanding of the task, low

motivation, carelessness, a response set, or an attempt to fake results. In cases

where the LCT score indicates a valid profile, there are a number of interpreta-

tion strategies recommended. One method of interpretation is to use the scores

on each scale to create an individual’s hierarchy of needs and then use this hier-

archy as a starting point for exploring career-related options. Minnesota Impor-

tance Questionnaire scores can also be interpreted with reference to the norms

that have been developed for the measure, and scores can be used to predict sat-

isfaction in different occupations, both at the individual occupation level (Stewart

et al., 1986) and based on clusters of occupations from the Minnesota Occupa-

tional Classification System (MOCS III; Dawis et al., 1987). Additional strategies

include having the client interpret the meaning of each need statement or having

the client do a self-estimation of needs.

The MIQ has many characteristics that make it useful for career counseling. Its

development is rooted in an empirically supported psychological theory of career

development. The MIQ has a hierarchical structure of needs and values that al-

lows for a discussion of results at different levels of specificity to reflect the vary-

ing developmental levels of career counseling clients. More specifically, clients

who are in the early stages of career development may benefit more from a gen-

eral discussion of values, whereas clients who are further along in the process of

making career-related decisions may benefit more from a more detailed discus-

sion of specific needs. The needs and values measured by the MIQ can be linked

to occupational outcomes, although the MIQ offers information on only a limited

number of occupations that are not grouped by level of educational requirements.

It should be noted that the MIQ, the research data that supported its develop-

ment, and the information it provides in counseling are becoming progressively

more dated. Fortunately, both of these concerns have been addressed by the de-

velopment of the MIQ-based O*NET value measures.

O*NET-B

ASED

ALUE

EASURES

Two value measures were developed as part of the O*NET that update and ex-

pand the information available from the MIQ. Linking results to the O*NET in-

creases the number of occupations that can be matched to an individual’s needs

and values and allows for the organization of occupations based on Job Zones, a

series of hierarchical categories based on the required level of education and

training (see Gore & Hitch, Chapter 16, this volume). The Work Importance Pro-

filer (WIP; U.S. Department of Labor, 2000b) is a computerized assessment pro-

gram that uses the multiple-rank order format from the MIQ. On completion of

this measure, a report can be generated that includes a list of occupations from

the O*NET database that matches the individual’s profile, sorted into categories

reflecting different levels of educational requirements. Interpretation of WIP re-

sults and their application in career counseling is otherwise the same as for the

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MIQ. The Work Importance Locator (WIL; U.S. Department of Labor, 2000a) is a

shorter pencil-and-paper measure that uses a card-sorting task to determine the

relative importance of the MIQ needs. Value scores are calculated by hand using a

workbook that also lists a number of occupations that are associated with each

value by Job Zone. Details of the development of these measures are presented in

technical reports by McCloy et al. (1999a, 1999b). Overall, the reliability for the

computerized WIP is comparable to the reliability for the MIQ, but the reliability

for the WIL is less impressive, perhaps reflecting the limitations of using a card-

sorting technique.

O*NET-Based Value Measures and Career Counseling A critical issue with the use

of assessment instruments in the career counseling process is being able to link

results to occupational choices. In general, the use of a values measure can lead

to insights about what is important to the client, serving as a catalyst for per-

sonal growth. However, a values measure that can be linked to occupations of-

fers the critical advantage of a second level of discourse—an examination of

how values are related to satisfaction. It is this advantage that separates the

MIQ and its O*NET offspring from the other value taxonomies and measures

discussed in this chapter. The data used to connect O*NET value profiles to oc-

cupations are more extensive and up-to-date than what is available for the MIQ.

These data and the measures themselves can be downloaded for free at the U.S.

Department of Labor’s O*NET web site, www.onetcenter.org. The O*NET pres-

ents an impressive and unprecedented opportunity to combine different types

of information on occupations to create a cohesive picture of how individuals

can be matched to work environments. A battery of assessment instruments has

been developed for the O*NET, including an ability measure, computerized

and pencil-and-paper Holland-based interest measures, and the MIQ-based

value measures. Results can be linked to information on the more than 1,000

occupations in the O*NET database, including generalized work activities,

work and organizational contexts, skill and ability requirements, knowledge

areas and requirements for occupational preparation, and occupational inter-

ests and values.

The process of updating occupational reinforcer patterns from the MIQ for

the O*NET is detailed in a technical report by McCloy, Campbell, Oswald,

Rivkin, and Lewis (1999). Nine nonincumbent raters were trained to generate re-

inforcer profiles for the occupations in the O*NET. In a pilot study of 30 occupa-

tions, it was found that the profiles generated by the nonincumbent raters were

similar to data collected from incumbents in each occupation. A group of eight

raters was then used to generate profiles for each occupation in the O*NET data-

base. As part of the ongoing process of updating the O*NET database, the origi-

nal ratings used to assess the level of reinforcement for each occupation will be

replaced with information collected from job analyses. Therefore, it is expected

that, over time, the O*NET will become an even more effective source of occupa-

tional information for use in career counseling. Of the two O*NET-based values

measures, the computerized WIP offers more sophisticated methods for match-

ing results to this occupational information and can be used to generate a de-

tailed report for review by the counselor and client. The pencil-and-paper

version may be useful in cases where there is limited access to computers or for

group administrations.

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Assessment of Needs and Values 323

EASURES

ASED ON

UPER

’

HEORY

: V

ALUES

CALE

AND

ALIENCE

NVENTORY

Two values-based measures were developed for the international WIS, the Values

Scale (Nevill & Super, 1986b) and the Salience Inventory (Nevill & Super, 1986a).

These measures were based on Super’s (1980) career development theory and

were initially designed in several languages for the cross-cultural study of the ca-

reer development process, the results of which are detailed in Super and Sverko

(1995). Nevill and Kruse (1996) have reviewed the empirical support for the Val-

ues Scale and discussed its use in career assessment and counseling, and Nevill

and Calvert (1996) have reviewed the empirical support for the Salience Inventory

and discussed its use in career assessment and counseling.

The Values Scale is a 105-item instrument measuring the importance of 21 val-

ues using 21 five-item scales with a four-point response format. Nevill and Super

(1986b) suggest that this assessment method allows for both ipsative and norma-

tive interpretations of the results of the Values Survey. By ranking values accord-

ing to the relative scores obtained on each scale, it is possible to create a values

hierarchy for an individual. However, given the social desirability of many values

(see Rokeach, 1973), most instrument designers have opted for a forced-choice for-

mat to create this type of values hierarchy. With the rating method used in the

Va lues Scale, it is possible for a client who is having difficulty making career-

related decisions to indicate that all of the values are “very important” to him or

her, making the results meaningless. In other cases, variability in the range of re-

sponses may reflect only measurement error instead of substantive differences in

the importance of each value. Apart from the values hierarchy, it is possible to

provide a normative interpretation of the results, which would compare an indi-

vidual’s scores to a set of norms obtained from a representative sample of the

population to which the individual belongs. Unfortunately, such an application is

not yet possible. Although the Values Scale was used in the multinational WIS,

the data from that project has yet to be presented in a form that would permit this

type of normative interpretation.

The Salience Inventory is a 170-item measure designed to assess the impor-

tance of five life-career goals: studying, working, community service, home and

family, and leisure activities. Items are scored on a four-point Likert-type scale

divided into three sets of five measures (50 participation items, 50 commitment

items, 70 value expectation items) that assess different aspects of the importance

of each role. Participation items ask individuals to rate what they actually do, or

have done recently, in each area. Commitment items ask individuals to rate the

degree to which they are committed to pursuing each life role. Value expectation

items are based on 14 of the values from the Values Scale and ask the individual

to rate the degree to which major life satisfactions or values are expected to be

found in each role.

Use of the Values Scale and Salience Inventory in Career Counseling The application

of the Values Scale and Salience Inventory in career counseling has been linked to

Super’s (1983) Career Development Assessment and Counseling (C-DAC) model

by Nevill and Kruse (1996) and Nevill and Calvert (1996). In this model, there are

three important issues to address. The first issue is to determine the values the

client would like to realize through work; second, to assess the relative impor-

tance of work to the client relative to other life roles; and third, to assess the

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client’s readiness to make career-related decisions. According to Nevill and Kruse,

the Va lues Scale addresses the first issue by assessing the values of the individ-

ual, identifying those that will be important to him or her in the work domain.

Understanding the importance of the work role relative to other life roles has im-

portant implications for the career counseling process because clients who do not

see work as important may not be in the best position to work with the results of

career-related assessment measures. The Salience Inventory was developed to mea-

sure

the relative importance of different life roles and is recommended for assess-

ment of this issue (Nevill & Calvert, 1996). The relative importance of different

life roles has implications for the career counseling process. For clients who do

not view the work role as being important, Nevill and Kruse recommend using in-

terventions designed to increase awareness of the importance of work, as these

clients may not be ready to engage in a detailed analysis of assessment results. In

comparison, clients who view the worker role as being important would not need

this type of intervention before attempting to make critical educational and

career-related decisions.

The primary limitation of using the Values Scale in career counseling is the

limited data available linking results to career-related outcomes. The comparison

point is the MIQ, the results of which can be linked to meaningful vocational out-

comes based on empirical data. For example, if a person scores high on the MIQ

measures of achievement or ability utilization, a database of occupational infor-

mation can be used to identify potential career choices where these values will be

reinforced. In comparison, if a person scores high on the Values Scale measures of

achievement or ability utilization, there is no equivalent database of information

for interpreting results. Furthermore, the Values Scale assesses a limited range of

work values, lacking the organizational values measured by the MIQ.

A strength of the Salience Inventory is that it does provide an assessment of an

interesting and potentially critical issue to explore with career counseling clients,

the relative importance of different life roles. Within the context of the C-DAC

model, this issue has important implications for the types of interventions a

counselor may want to use with a client (see Nevill & Calvert, 1996). However, the

Salience Inventory is a 170-item measure that assesses the relative importance of

five life roles. The utility of the measure must be weighed against time con-

straints, as counselors working within a time-limited treatment model should

consider the benefits of other assessment measures that provide a wider range of

useful information.

THER

ALUE

EASURES

In addition to the MIQ, its O*NET-based variations, and the Super-based Values

Scale and Salience Inventory, there are a number of values measures available,

varying in psychometric robustness, that correspond to the various taxonomies

and models previously discussed in this chapter. Included in this category are

Rokeach’s (1973) classic values measure; Kopelman, Rovenpor, and Guan’s (2003)

update of the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values; the circumplex model of

values proposed by Schwartz (1992; see Struch, Schwartz, & van der Kloot, 2002);

the values measure used by Hofstede (1980, 2001) in his cross-cultural research;

and any number of idiosyncratic value measures developed by researchers in

the industrial-organizational area, a review of which is beyond the scope of this

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Assessment of Needs and Values 325

chapter. The use of these measures in career counseling could lead to interesting

discussions and an increased understanding of the relative importance of differ-

ent values to a client, but the inability to reliably link these results to occupa-

tional outcomes limits the range of their clinical application.

ELECTION OF

ALUES

EASURES FOR

SE IN

LINICAL

AND

THER

PPLIED

ETTINGS

Among the measures that represent the different value taxonomies and models

presented in this chapter, the O*NET-based WIP offers the best strategy for link-

ing values to occupations. The other values measures we reviewed cannot link re-

sults to the range of career-related information available in the O*NET. As the

U.S. Department of Labor continues to develop and update the O*NET database,

the discrepancy between the range of information available through the WIP and

other measures will continue to grow. In short, other value measures may be a

starting point for a discussion of what is important to a client but cannot provide

an answer to the potentially more interesting question of how to link these values

to the world of work. However, in the future it may become possible to apply

other values measures as new information and models emerge from research on

cross-cultural values and the role of values in the workplace.

A critical issue with career-related assessments with diverse racial-ethnic

groups is the interpretation of results in the context of the sociocultural influ-

ences that may have an impact on the career development process (Brown, 2002).

For example, Eby, Johnson, and Russell (1998) have made important distinctions

between the institutional challenges and personal challenges that members of

minority groups face in the United States. Institutional challenges include others’

stereotypes based on group membership, discrimination in selection practices

and organizational practices, hostility from coworkers, and glass ceiling effects.

Personal challenges include having your own interests limited or stereotyped

based on group membership, problems with self-efficacy and self-confidence, less

career exploration, and more career indecision. Flores, Spanierman, and Obasi

(2003) outline a career assessment model that emphasizes the importance of in-

fusing cultural sensitivity at all stages in the assessment process, including the

choice of assessment instruments, the administration process, and the interpreta-

tion of results. Therefore, when linking WIP results to the information in the

O*NET database, it is critical to recognize that the values that are important to an

individual must also be understood in the context of the individual’s culture and

other social forces that can influence the range of educational and career-related

options being considered.

SUMMARY

Va lues represent an important source of information that can be used to facilitate

the career development process. Ultimately, the use of a values measure in career

counseling should be part of an integrative strategy combining different sources

of information and perspectives to help individuals make informed career-

related decisions. In cases where there is access to a computer and printer, the WIP

is recommended for values assessment because it links values to occupational in-

formation through the O*NET. Without computer facilities, the pencil-

and-paper

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