Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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466

CHAPTER 19

Counseling for

Choice Implementation

LaRae M. Jome and Susan D. Phillips

AVING ARRIVED AT

a promising vocational direction, the next task in the

career development process is to implement that choice. Toward that end,

counselors may be called on to assist clients in identifying opportunities

and help them develop the skills to successfully present themselves to potential

employers. What does the literature have to offer to assist counselors in guiding

their clients through the implementation process?

Approaching the literature with this question in mind, we focus here on the

strategies and interventions the literature provides for helping individuals to im-

plement their vocational choices. The chapter is organized around two implemen-

tation processes—search and persuasion—that occur after an individual has

chosen an occupational direction. The search section is focused on how individuals

seek out—or create—opportunities to implement their choices, while the persua-

sion section focuses on how individuals convince others to allow them to pursue

those opportunities. The literature from a broad range of fields (i.e., industrial/

organizational psychology, social work, rehabilitation counseling) published in

the past 15 years was consulted concerning an array of transitions in which

choices are implemented (e.g., finding a first job or seeking work after a job loss).

Findings from intervention studies designed to increase individuals’ success in

the implementation process and findings from research designed to broaden

knowledge about the implementation process are synthesized to provide coun-

selors with guidelines for helping individuals through search and persuasion

processes.

How do individuals approach the task of identifying—or creating—career and job-

related opportunities? This section explores the literature related to how individ-

uals search for career-related opportunities in their environments, specifically

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focusing on factors that facilitate or hinder the search process (see Saks, Chapter

7, this volume, for a comprehensive review of this literature and a model for orga-

nizing it). Synthesizing the extant research on the search process, we provide a

picture of the characteristics of successful seekers of career-related opportunities.

In addition, current research on searcher strategies and behaviors is explored, as

well as research on interventions that offer guidelines for a successful search pro-

cess. The section ends with conclusions about how counselors can guide job seek-

ers through the process of searching for employment opportunities.

DENTIFYING

AREER

PPORTUNITIES

We st art with consideration of the individuals who have chosen a specific career

direction. Having reached this point, their next step is to implement that choice

by gaining access to (or re-entrance into) the workforce in their chosen field. To

engage in this implementation process, they must seek out and identify informa-

tion that will lead to career-related opportunities. It is generally agreed that the

process of searching for information occurs both internally and externally; that

is, individuals must seek knowledge of themselves concerning their preferences

and competencies as well as seek occupational information from other individu-

als in their social network or other external sources (Steffy, Shaw, & Noe, 1989;

Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman, 1983). The former (self-knowledge) enables per-

sons to identify occupations they will like, while the latter aids them in finding

these more quickly (see Saks, Chapter 7, this volume). There is some empirical ev-

idence for a two-phase model of successful searching whereby the searcher en-

gages in an initial, preparatory period of information gathering and exploration

self and environment, followed by an active, intense information- or job-seeking

phase (Blau, 1994; Linnehan & Blau, 1998; Werbel, 2000). This process requires at

least a minimal level of individual effort as well as the internal motivation to take

action. However, even in an actively searching phase, the intensity with which in-

dividuals search (i.e., how often they seek information, how much information

they seek, and from which individuals they seek information) can vary greatly.

Further, the search process can unfold through both formal and informal mecha-

nisms, and the degree of social isolation or support with which the search process

unfolds also varies considerably. Indeed, it has been noted that the process of job

searching can be a potentially difficult and uninformed process, especially for

American youth, because there seem to be few formal mechanisms for guiding

work-bound youth through the choice implementation process into the workforce

(Mortimer, Zimmer-Gembeck, Holmes, & Shanahan, 2002; Orfield, 1997).

Within these general parameters, we turn to the literature to examine what

is known about factors that assist—or hinder—the process of identifying op-

portunities. As summarized next, the literature suggests three perspectives on

this issue:

1. Personality or social-cognitive characteristics of the individual that play an

important role in the search process.

2. The behaviors or strategies that individuals might use in the course of

searching (Saks, Chapter 7, this volume).

3. Intervention efforts that have been undertaken to help individuals achieve

a more successful search.

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HARACTERISTICS OF

NDIVIDUALS

UCCESSFULLY

DENTIFY

AREER

PPORTUNITIES

As Saks’s chapter (Chapter 7) reveals, the literature on the searching process sheds

light on the characteristics of individuals that facilitate or hinder the degree to

which they are successful in identifying career opportunities. Successful searchers

seem to be oriented to the world of work and are psychologically ready and inter-

nally motivated to engage in this process (Borgen, 1999; Phillips, Blustein, Jobin-

Davis, & White, 2002). Beyond this basic orientation, the research has yielded a

profile of the personality and social-cognitive characteristics of individuals who

achieve greater success in identifying career opportunities. One consistent theme

emerging from this literature is that being extraverted and conscientious is dis-

tinctly advantageous in various aspects of the search process. Greater extraver-

sion and conscientiousness are related to greater job-search effort and intensity

(Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001; Wanberg, Kanfer, & Banas, 2000; Wanberg,

Wat t, & Rumsey, 1996). Further, the more extraversion, conscientiousness, and

positive affect individuals exhibit, the more they rely on the more successful so-

cial or relational search strategies (such as networking) in identifying career op-

portunities (Burger & Caldwell, 2000; Linnehan & Blau, 1998; Wanberg et al.,

2000). More introverted individuals, however, tend to prefer more impersonal or

formal approaches to searching, such as using want ads or mailing résumés (Lin-

nehan & Blau, 1998).

While gregariousness (extraversion) and attention to detail (conscientious-

ness) facilitate the search process, especially in ease of interacting with others to

obtain career-related information, some evidence suggests that excessive anxiety

and other neurotic qualities can impede the process. More anxious job seekers

tended to engage in less effective searching, such that they report great effort in

the process, but engage in fewer actual search behaviors (Kanfer et al., 2001).

Other studies have suggested that an optimal or manageable level of anxiety may

facilitate the search process. For example, Phillips et al. (2002) found that a

healthy level of anxiety facilitated the process by which work-bound youth

searched for resources in their environment. Similarly, in a longitudinal study of

the antecedents and consequences of job-search behavior, undergraduate students

who reported higher Type A behavior engaged in a more focused search (Steffy

et al., 1989).

Other individual characteristics related to successfully identifying career op-

portunities are self-esteem and (especially) self-efficacy expectations, with job-

search self-efficacy being one of the strongest predictors of search behaviors. Blau

(1994) found that global self-esteem was not related to either exploratory or active

job-search phases; however, the more job-searching self-efficacy, the more likely

individuals were to move from a preparatory to an actively searching phase. Saks

and Ashforth (1999) found that only job-search self-efficacy—and not self-

esteem—was related to job-search behaviors and employment outcomes.

Career or job-search self-efficacy has become a popular variable of study in the

search literature, and it has shown promising links to employment outcomes. Sol-

berg et al. (1994) delineated four dimensions of career search self-efficacy con-

cerning the belief in an individual’s ability to (1) engage in the job search, (2) to

network, (3) to interview successfully, and (4) to explore himself or herself. Indi-

viduals with greater self-efficacy for engaging in the job-search process tended to

report greater job-searching behaviors, more intensive searching, and greater

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Counseling for Choice Implementation 469

success in obtaining employment (Kanfer et al., 2001; Saks & Ashforth, 1999;

Wanberg, Kanfer, & Rotundo, 1999).

In addition, Kanfer et al. (2001) found that job-search self-efficacy and employ-

ment commitment were more strongly related to job-search behavior among un-

employed job seekers than new job entrants, perhaps illustrating how job loss

may affect an individual’s self-evaluation.

EHAVIORS AND

TRATEGIES OF

UCCESSFUL

EARCHERS

In addition to the role of personality and social-cognitive characteristics of the in-

dividual, a number of specific behaviors or strategies are characteristic of suc-

cessful searchers. Foremost among these is the intensity with which the search is

undertaken. Specifically, the research evidence suggests that the more intense

the job search, the more successful the outcome. That is, the harder individuals

look for a job, the more quickly they will find one (Kanfer et al., 2001; Saks & Ash-

forth, 1999; Schmit, Amel, & Ryan, 1993; Wanberg et al., 1999). Further, this con-

clusion would seem to hold true for a range of individual circumstances. For

example, for undergraduate students searching for a job, the more active and in-

tense the job search, the more likely they will obtain employment soon after

graduation (Saks & Ashforth, 1999). The same principle is evident for unem-

ployed older adults, where those who engaged in a more intense search tended to

have less depressive symptoms and were unemployed for shorter time periods

(Rife & Belcher, 1993).

The intensity of the search—usually measured as the degree of time and effort

put into searching for career opportunities—is associated with a number of other

search-related variables. For example, Werbel (2000) found that the more inten-

sive their job search, the higher paying, more satisfying jobs individuals obtained.

In addition, job-search intensity seems to be facilitated by commitment to work,

financial difficulties, and confidence in job-search abilities (Wanberg et al., 1999).

Recognizing that searching for career opportunities may well occur over an ex-

tended time period, several researchers have examined how searcher behaviors

and strategies might evolve over time. Barber, Daly, Giannantonio, and Phillips

(1994), for example, found that job-search behaviors change over time, such that

as the search continues, college and vocational-technical student seekers become

less intense in their search (i.e., use fewer sources, actively search for fewer hours,

expend less effort), use fewer formal job-search sources, and seek less informa-

tion related to obtaining a job. For searchers who had not obtained employment

three months after graduation, however, the pattern reversed in that they in-

creased their use of more formal sources and again engaged in a more extensive

search process. Given that a long or unsuccessful search process can take an emo-

tional toll on searchers, advice from college graduates who have successfully tra-

versed the job-search process includes beginning the job-search process early

(i.e., before graduation), coping with frustration if active searching does not re-

sult in immediate job offers, and being flexible (e.g., willing to take a temporary

position; Crozier & Grassick, 1996).

In the face of an extended search process, some findings suggest that a nega-

tive relationship exists between perceived control over the job-search process and

job-search behaviors. Specifically, Saks and Ashforth (1999) suggested that the

less control individuals perceive, the more intensely they search. In a similar

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vein, Wanberg et al. (1999) found that motivational control, and not search self-

efficacy, was related to job-searching intensity for individuals who had been un-

employed for at least three months. These findings imply that when individuals

have been searching unsuccessfully, their ability to stay cognitively focused on

activities such as goal setting and planning will be more helpful in maintaining

an active search than will their confidence in their ability to search.

Apart from the intensity of the search process, several investigators have fo-

cused on specific search strategies. Common search strategies include networking,

sending résumés, perusing want ads, using recruitment services or employment

gencies, taking internships, and cold calling (Crozier & Grassick, 1996; Green,

Tigges, & Diaz, 1999; Mau & Kopischke, 2001; Montoya & Atkinson, 1996). Some

research has focused on the search strategies considered important by adoles-

cents for the purpose of facilitating the school-to-work transition. Furnham and

Rawles (1996), for example, found that the job-search strategies of British adoles-

cents were related to their attributions and attitudes toward school and employ-

ment. Those with more internal attributions, who liked school more, were more

open to career advice, and those who sought more intrinsically satisfying jobs be-

lieved in the importance of using self-effort job-search strategies (i.e., strategies

that involved taking initiative such as cold calling, asking for advice, and actively

gathering information). Similarly, Heaven (1995) found that Australian high school

students held different views of the merits of self-effort strategies that required

individual action versus external strategies that involved seeking help from others

or registering with employment agencies. It was found that stronger work ethic

beliefs were related to greater belief in the importance of self-effort strategies.

Further, it was found that the greater the students’ need for a job, the more useful

they saw external strategies. In contrast, the higher the status of the job being

sought, the more important the self-effort strategies were seen.

One of the most popular job-search strategies reported by job seekers is an in-

formal job-search strategy that entails networking with people in an individual’s

social environment, such as family, friends, coworkers, and neighbors (Schwab,

Rynes, & Aldag, 1987; Villar, Juan, Corominas, & Capell, 2000; Wanberg et al.,

2000).

Granovetter (1973, 1995) distinguished between “strong” ties (networking

with close social network of family and friends) and “weak” ties (networking with

professional acquaintances). Studying these differential strategies, research has

indicated that those using weak ties in searching tended to obtain jobs with

higher incomes, were more satisfied with their jobs, and were more likely to be

working within their field of study compared to individuals who used strong ties

or formal job strategies (D. W. Brown & Konrad, 2001; Villar et al., 2000).

Although there is good evidence about the generally successful nature of net-

working (D. W. Brown & Konrad, 2001; Granovetter, 1995; Villar et al., 2000; Wan-

berg et al., 2000), not all searchers are comparably successful in applying this tool.

Many searchers, especially those with less work experience and more barriers in

the search process, may underestimate the importance of networking (Montoya &

Atkinson, 1996). In addition, it has been noted that introverted individuals may be

at a disadvantage in their searches because they may be less inclined to network

and may have fewer social contacts (Wanberg et al., 2000). Comfort with network-

ing has been related to networking intensity above and beyond personality

factors, and the more confidence or self-efficacy with networking that individu-

als reported, the more they relied on that search strategy (Villar et al., 2000; Wan-

berg et al., 2000). Although greater use of social networking does not increase the

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Counseling for Choice Implementation 471

speed of obtaining employment, the use of the strategy does seem to be related to

greater possibility of securing a position (Wanberg et al., 2000). Overall, the find-

ings related to social networking point to the importance of increasing network-

ing comfort for those seeking employment.

Given the popularity of networking strategies and their links to successful em-

ployment outcomes, gender and racial-ethnic group differences concerning using

others in the search process have important implications. Although some re-

search found no gender differences in use of networking (Mau & Kopischke,

2001; Villar et al., 2000), other findings report that men tend to use networking

strategies more than women (Frazee, 1997; Straits, 1998). Further exploration of

networking strategies reveals that job searchers tend to network with same-race

(Green et al., 1999) and same-sex (Straits, 1998) others. One potential disadvan-

tage of networking within an individual’s race or gender is the perpetuation of

sex segregation in the workplace as well as channeling racial-ethnic minorities

into lower paying jobs (Green et al., 1999; Huffman & Torres, 2002; Straits, 1998).

EARCH

NTERVENTIONS

Interventions for increasing the search behavior of job seekers have largely em-

ployed a structured group model that relies on social learning principles in teach-

ing and reinforcing job-search skills. The two most popular of these group

interventions are the Job Club (Azrin & Besalel, 1980; Azrin, Flores, & Kaplan,

1975) a

nd JOBS (Caplan, Vinokur, Price, & van Ryn, 1989), and evidence of the ef-

ficacy of these intervention programs has been accumulated since the early 1980s

(S. D. Brown & McPartland, in press).

These group interventions have been linked to a variety of positive outcomes

for different populations. For example, Rife (1997) described a job-search club for

unemployed older women, based on social learning and self-efficacy principles.

Participants showed decreased levels of depression as well as increased job-

searching self-efficacy following the group. Similarly, Rife and Belcher (1994) re-

ported that older adults participating in a 12-week job club were more likely to be

employed, less depressed, and making more money and working more hours

than those in the control group. P. W. Corrigan, Reedy, Thadani, and Ganet (1995)

found that adults with severe mental illness who completed a job club improved

in their quality of life, reported fewer negative psychological symptoms, and

showed greater job interviewing skills after the club, compared to individuals

who dropped out. Those with poorer quality of life were more likely to complete

the group. Admunson and Borgen (1988) found that unemployed adults reported

largely helpful, positive effects from participating in a job club. Further evidence

for the benefits of employment support groups was found by Borgen (1999), who

reported that unemployed adults evaluated their life situations more positively

after the support program and found the program very empowering.

Recent research has focused on understanding the mechanisms underlying

the efficacy of job-searching clubs, namely, their ability to enhance searchers’

self-efficacy in their job-search skills. Eden and Aviram (1993) designed a self-

efficacy training workshop for unemployed adults that used modeling, role play-

ing, feed

back, and positive reinforcement to enhance participants’ self-efficacy

for job-searching behaviors. The workshop was associated with increased global

self-efficacy for unemployed adults, energizing them to continue with the job

search. Specifically, those who had high general self-efficacy before beginning

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the intervention were more likely to increase their job-searching activities, after

which they were more likely to obtain employment. The authors concluded that

job seekers with high self-efficacy in general have the confidence in their ability

to engage in the job-search process on their own, but interventions that boost con-

fidence in job-seeking skills are especially helpful for those individuals with

lower general self-efficacy. In a related intervention, van Ryn and Vinokur (1992)

found that a job skills training program for unemployed adults increased partici-

pants’

confidence in job searching; job-search self-efficacy influenced job-search

behaviors by increasing participants’ intentions and attitudes concerning

searching for career opportunities. At a four-month follow-up, the treatment

also showed direct effects on job-search behaviors. Finally, welfare recipients

participating in a job club showed increased career search self-efficacy at

posttest but no change in global self-esteem; all participants were employed at a

90-day follow-up (Sterrett, 1998).

Another focus of the intervention research is on the social support embedded

within the job club model. Here, there is considerable evidence about the power of

interacting with, and gaining support from, similar others through the search

process, especially in boosting a positive outlook about the job situation and re-

ceiving support through a stressful situation (Admunson & Borgen, 1988). Wen-

zel (1993) found that for financially disadvantaged and homeless individuals

participating in employment training, the more social support they received,

specifically in the form of validating their personal worth and inherent skills, the

more their self-efficacy for finding a job increased. Unemployed older adults who

received more support from others engaged in more intense job-search activities

(Rife & Belcher, 1993). Wanberg et al. (1996) found that job-seeking support was

related to greater job-seeking behavior. The social support that seemed most in-

fluential for this group was positive messages from unemployed peers, where

messages from employed family and friends were perceived as less supportive.

The literature provides descriptions of some search interventions and pro-

grams that do not necessarily stem from a job-finding club model, but sound

promising and need to be evaluated for their effectiveness. For example, one

creative intervention includes a collaborative program between university coun-

sel

ing centers and libraries to provide students with job-searching skills and job-

related information (DeHart, 1996). Other programs focus on providing students

with work-related experiences to better prepare them to engage in the job-search

process in the future. For example, there are programs focused on linking school

and businesses to help keep at-risk youth in school (Gendron, 1997), preparing

college students for a career in law enforcement (Dale, 1996), preparing high school

students for technical careers (Kate, 1994), increasing communication skills and

job-search self-efficacy among college students with disabilities (M. J. Corrigan,

ones, & McWhirter, 2001), and emphasizing importance of internships for their

exposure to corporate culture (Jones, 1995; Rimby & Davis, 1993). While many of

the described programs would seem innovative and promising, the evidence

about their usefulness in the search process remains to be established.

ONCLUSIONS

For counselors seeking to aid individuals in searching for career opportunities,

the literature offers a number of suggestions. First, counselors need to be aware

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of the influential role that personality and social-cognitive characteristics appear

to play in the search process. Those searchers for whom interpersonal interac-

tions do not come easily may be at a disadvantage, and counselors may seek to

provide social support and identify ways to enhance comfort with the highly so-

cial nature of the search process. Second, counselors can foster the use of success-

ful search strategies and behaviors by encouraging searchers to maintain an

active, intense, concentrated search that is continually vigilant about networking

with individuals in the client’s environment. This idea coincides with the popu-

lar notion that job seekers must make job searching an active, full-time job. Third,

counselors can seek to enhance individuals’ searching self-efficacy, as well as en-

sure that the search process is accompanied by individual or group support. Fi-

nally, counselors’ efforts to evaluate innovative search interventions and report

program effectiveness would greatly contribute to knowledge about the effective-

ness of job-search interventions.

PERSUASION

Once individuals have successfully searched out career opportunities in their en-

vironment, the next task of implementation involves persuading others to allow

them to pursue those desired opportunities. In this process, individuals wrestle

with issues of how to present themselves to make them optimally attractive to

prospective employers and how to negotiate the terms of their prospective employ-

ment. Correspondingly, the literature in this area focuses on building interviewing

and communication skills (whether in writing or in person) and increasing

compe-

tencies in negotiation. In this section, we focus on research and interventions de-

signed to help individuals to navigate the process of obtaining actual entry into

the work world. The characteristics of individuals who are successful in this per-

suasion process are explored, in addition to the research on effective interven-

tions for enhancing persuasion skills. Finally, implications for counselors helping

individuals through the persuasion process are explored.

HARACTERISTICS OF

EOPLE

UCCESSFULLY

ERSUADE

Paralleling the findings in the section on searching, certain personality charac-

teristics seem to provide advantages in persuasion-related activities. Greater ex-

traversion, conscientiousness, and positive affect are linked to greater interview

success, such that more extraverted individuals were found to receive multiple of-

fers for interviews and jobs (Burger & Caldwell, 2000; Caldwell & Burger, 1998).

In addition, more extraverted individuals were more likely to prepare for inter-

views by interacting with other people, and this use of social job-searching strate-

gies was also related to greater success in interviewing (Burger & Caldwell,

2000). Beyond personality traits, other individual differences show links to suc-

cessfully implementing an individual’s career choices. A Finnish study revealed

that youth who tended to use more avoidant strategies (such as being passive and

having expectations that they will fail) were less likely to find employment

within a few months (Määtä, Nurmi, & Majava, 2002).

Successful persuasion also seems connected to success in the search process it-

self in that the more job-search behaviors engaged in by individuals, the more in-

terviews they report receiving (Mau & Kopischke, 2001). On the other hand,

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Steffy et al. (1989) found that job-search behaviors were only somewhat related to

interviewing activities and number of job offers. However, the more confidence

undergraduate students demonstrated in obtaining a job, the better their inter-

view and placement outcomes, thus highlighting the importance of self-efficacy

throughout the implementation process.

Finally, participating in a work experience outside school may give individuals

an advantage when it comes to success in entering the workforce. A Swedish

study (Gustafusson, 2002) explored the differences between youth who had par-

ticipated in “school-arranged workplace training” (i.e., cooperative education) and

those who had engaged in “market-governed workplace training” (i.e., students

who were employed in jobs outside school). Youth who had held part-time extra-

curricular jobs while in high school were nearly three times as likely to avoid

being unemployed later and showed more positive attitudes about their personal

chances of success in the labor market compared to those who had participated in

school-arranged workplace training.

NHANCING

ERSUASION

KILLS

Given the importance of the job-seeking process, it is not surprising that job seek-

ers may lack confidence in their persuasion skills and that they need further as-

sistance with cover letter and résumé writing and interviewing (Montoya &

Atkinson, 1996; Thompson & Dickey, 1994). It is interesting that strategies to en-

hance these persuasion skills seem to be more prevalent in the popular press than

in the professional literature. With respect to written persuasion (résumé writing,

in particular), popular job-search books tout the virtues of a good résumé, and

some evidence suggests that college graduates largely obtain jobs by simply sub-

mitting their résumés (Mau & Kopischke, 2001). However, little evidence is avail-

able on what résumé characteristics may be more advantageous in the persuasion

process or how best to teach individuals to develop résumé writing skills.

There is some evidence that conciseness and brevity are essential in résumé

formation in that one-page résumés were seen as more attractive by interviewers

compared to longer résumés or narrative-style résumés and qualitative briefs

(Helwig, 1985; Thoms, McMasters, Roberts, & Dombkowski, 1999). Ryland and

Rosen (1987) found that personnel professionals rated a nontraditional, func-

tional résumé (which included a brief employment history but mainly focused on

the individual’s skills and accomplishments) more highly than a traditional-style

résumé that emphasized a chronological listing of previous employment experi-

ences. Providing a clear, specific objective statement, mentioning grade-point aver-

age—especially if it is high—and listing relevant coursework and accomplishments

may also make the résumé more attractive to interviewers, especially for appli-

cants with less work experience (Thoms et al., 1999). Highlighting relevant job and

educational experiences is beneficial (Knouse, 1994), but embellishing the résumé

with exaggerated adjectives may be perceived negatively (Knouse, Giacalone,

Pollard, 1988).

In addition to exploring the components that increase or decrease the attrac-

tiveness of a résumé, research has focused on career outcomes for those receiv-

ing résumé preparation assistance. The process of developing a résumé with a

skilled counselor may increase confidence in career activities. For example,

Krieshok, Ulven, Hecox, and Wettersten (2000) found that vocational rehabilita-

tion clients who participated in one or two sessions of résumé therapy that

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focused on identi

fying client strengths using narrative and solution-focused ther-

apeutic techniques showed increased career decision-making self-efficacy. The