Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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undertaken a host of roles (e.g., spouse, parent, worker, volunteer), along with

their requisite obligations, which increase the complexity of career transition de-

cisions. Mature adults represent a majority of the paid workers participating in

the labor force, which will be an ongoing trend over the next 20 years (U.S. Bureau

of Labor Statistics, 2001). In addition, a larger proportion of these workers have

completed some college or have attained two-year degrees or four-year degrees,

than any other age group of working adults (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2001).

We also know from the retirement literature (cf. Robbins, Lee, & Wan, 1994)

that health and finance are key factors for mature adults and may take on in-

creasing importance during career transitions. Financially, median incomes for

mature adult males working full time range from $42,404 to $48,687, while me-

dian incomes for mature adult females working full time range from $31,323 to

$35,494 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2001). The trends indicate that males continue

to earn more money than females and mature adult workers increase their in-

come with age (experience and tenure on the job). Despite income increases over

time, two-thirds of mature adults worry about their financial future (Russell,

1998). Health status among mature working adults varies, being influenced by

education, income, and lifestyle choices, to name a few. A majority of these adults

are overweight, with dramatic increases in obesity (U.S. Centers for Disease

Control, 2000). These individuals are at increased risk of physical ailments and

psychological disorders, which increases work absences and health care costs.

Disability rates have also increased among mature adult workers, which can alter

their ability to function to the capacity required by some occupations and place

additional demands on the health care system. With increased life expectancy

and uncertainties surrounding financial security throughout retirement, mature

adults are expected to remain active participants in the labor force. At the same

time, it should be recognized that with these trends, these labor force participants

may be confronted with physical and financial limitations.

HANGING

ATURE OF

ORK

Counselors also need to consider the changing nature of work as they counsel

mature adults in the midst of career transitions. Structurally, a rising service sec-

tor and corresponding declines in manufacturing are concentrating the labor force

in service occupations and providing the most employment opportunities. This

shift to a service-producing labor sector has prompted the growth of part-time

and temporary workers. These individuals work in an uncertain economy, with

few, if any, benefits and limited wages.

At one time, the fastest growing occupations were in the computer industry,

with software engineers, support specialists, and network systems/database ad-

ministrators at or near the top of the list of high-growth occupations. Since the

rapid economic upheaval of the late 1990s and early 2000s, the job market has

changed again. Currently, there is a high demand for personal care and home

health aides, medical assistants, other health care assistants, and social and human

ervice assistants. These occupations vary by earnings potential and educational

requirements. The computer-related occupations all require postsecondary edu-

cation and pay the highest wages. The health care and human service assistants

generally receive on-the-job training and earn from $7.76 to $10.88 an hour.

These, along with other jobs that require on-the-job training (e.g., administrative

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Counseling for Career Transition: Career Pathing, Job Loss, and Reentry 627

support personnel, laborers, service workers), are projected to account for the

most occupational growth.

Advancing technologies contribute to ever-changing and continuous forms of

production. Technology is able to pace and monitor production 24 hours a day.

Many work environments are fast paced, and workers are being asked to increase

their productivity. In some instances, personnel are already obsolete and may be-

come more so. In other cases, these advances require workers to upgrade skills or

move across occupational sectors for continued employment. There are flatter or-

ganizational structures among the various sectors of the labor market, which trans-

late

into fewer career ladders for people to move up in a company. The workplace

is also more heterogeneous, requiring multicultural competency among workers

if they are to interact effectively with coworkers and achieve the goals of the or-

ganization. It is clear that continual change and uncertainty, where job compe-

tency and hard work no longer secure a person’s position, mark the job scene.

Given these work characteristics, mature adult workers who are not highly adapt-

able may confront additional challenges during career transitions.

OCIETAL

RESSURES AND

ERSONAL

HANGE

The life context of mature adult workers grows more complex as societal pres-

sures and the nature of personal change are incorporated into the counseling pro-

cess. One situation confronting the general public involves an aging population

working longer. At one time, the natural course of events was for people to have

long productive work lives, retire at 65, and be replaced by a new crop of young,

motivated labor to follow the same path as their elders. Now people are working

into their late 60s and 70s and trying to compete with younger cohorts for a lim-

ited number of jobs. At the same time, mature adults may want to seek fulfillment

in a variety of life roles, one of which includes their jobs. A desire to stay produc-

tive, economic instability, and rising health care costs are motivating many ma-

ture adults to remain in the workforce.

Mature adult workers are also being confronted with a unique set of dual role

demands as caregivers. Referred to as the “sandwich generation,” mature adults

are “being squeezed between the demands of their children and the responsibil-

ity they feel to assist their aging parents” (Anderson, 1999). They must cope with

the stresses and pressures of increased caregiving responsibilities. Many mature

adults are providing financial, psychological, and/or physical support to a num-

ber of relatives, which can strain their resources and influence their work lives.

On top of societal changes, a changing labor market, health, and life role con-

siderations, it is important to consider the process of change or transition per se.

A career transition is the “period during which an individual is either changing

roles (taking on a different objective role) or changing orientation to a role al-

ready held (altering a subjective state)” (Louis, 1981, p. 57). In other words, peo-

ple who either take on the tasks and behaviors of a new job or shift their internal

view of a current job would be in career transition. The duration of time it takes to

make a career transition varies, depending, in part, on the type of transition and

the degree of familiarity between old and new situations. For example, a person

faced with unanticipated involuntary unemployment may have little immediate

opportunity to find a new job that satisfies financial and psychological needs.

The duration of this person’s career transition may be longer and more difficult

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than the person experiencing a planned exit from one job and subsequent en-

trance into another.

As Hesketh (2000) noted, “Effective transition management leads to improved

posttransition adjustment, and this in turn feeds into appropriate anticipatory

behaviors and attitudes in the next preparation stage” (p. 477). Similarly, the ex-

perience surrounding each transition influences “one’s future experience of tran-

sitions” (Nicholson, 1990, p. 87). This is critical for counselors to understand

given that career transitions are more frequent and of different types. The more

different they are from one time to the next, the more difficult the transition ex-

perience may be for mature adult workers. The more frequent, the more complex

additional transitions become as these experiences build on each other to influ-

ence mature adult thoughts and behaviors.

Another way to view change is akin to loss. Changes that involve the experi-

ence of loss bring with them a host of responses. Typical stages of response to

loss provide a useful guide to understanding individuals’ reactions to their expe-

riences. These stages are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance

(Kübler-Ross, 1969). Not everyone proceeds through every stage in the same order

or at the same pace. People move back and forth between stages. In the section on

job loss, these stages are incorporated as a framework for discussing responses to

this type of career transition.

ATURE

DULT

RANSITIONS

: C

AREER

ATHING

, J

OSS

AND

EENTRY

The transition process is more complex than can be described in this chapter. To

obtain diverse perspectives on this process, refer to models posited by Bridges

(1980), Nicholson (1990), and Schlossberg, Waters, and Goodman (1995). The

transitions considered here are career-related and relevant to mature adults. Ma-

ture

adults experience various career transition alternatives, which can include

(1) shifting their career path (moving up, down, across, or enriching the status

quo); (2) responding to the loss of a job; or (3) reentering the labor market after

having

concentrated their energies in other life roles.

Career Pathing With organizations constantly responding to the changing forces

of supply and demand, a shrinking labor pool with strong qualifications, and a

variety of career direction alternatives confronting workers, companies have de-

signed career pathing programs to aid their recruitment (Bejian & Salomone, 1995)

and to increase productivity by helping workers to transition into occupations

that would best suit them. Specifically, career pathing involves developing and

implementing processes and resources designed to continually help individuals

to make their most significant and satisfying contributions throughout their ca-

reer (Davis, n.d.). At the individual level, career pathing takes into account the

planned and unplanned sequence of a worker’s occupational positions over time.

The career pathing flowchart (Figure 26.1) was developed by ACT to create a

model career pathing solution as part of its workforce development agenda. The

figure presents the elements necessary for helping mature adult workers to make

career changes. The first element is to identify the goal. Does the individual de-

sire a lateral or vertical career move? Does the person recognize that a high stress,

high profile position is too demanding and want to explore his or her options

for moving down the career ladder? Does the person want to maintain a current

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Counseling for Career Transition: Career Pathing, Job Loss, and Reentry 629

sition but is seeking to enrich his or her experience of it? Has a person been re-

cently notified that his or her employment is being terminated, and does he or

she want to quickly find another position? The answers to these types of ques-

tions clarify the type of career goal under consideration. Following goal identifi-

cation, an assessment of skills, experience, and factors such as motivation and

energy level are used to help establish a realistic self-appraisal of the individual.

On the occupational side, a survey of available job opportunities, their skill re-

quirements, and performance expectations is used to compare with what a ma-

ture adult brings to the employment table. For mature adults who may have

a wide range of experiences but limited skills or energy to compete with a 20-

something salesperson for commissions, it is critical to obtain a complete assess-

ment to more fully consider with the client whether certain career alternatives

are realistic options.

The next steps are to determine what actions and appropriate delivery plat-

form(s) would serve to effectively meet the stated goal. A variety of actions and

delivery platform(s) are necessary given the need to be creative about how infor-

mation is delivered on demand in business and industry. Counselors can avail

themselves of these options, recognizing that the business and industry context

supports both traditional education activities and alternative approaches to ad-

vancing the professional development of employees. For individuals in career

transition, the selection of actions and subsequent delivery platforms suited to

Figure 26.1 Career Pathing Flowchart.

Goals

Exploration

Placement

Career advancement

Enrichment

Assessments

¥ Skill requirements

¥Available job

opportunities

¥ Performance

expectations of job

Positions

Actions

¥Training

¥ Coaching

¥ Mentoring

¥ Education

Post-action

performance

appraisal

¥ Current skills (e.g.,

writing, reading,

observation)

¥ Current experience

level

¥ Noncognitive

factors (e.g., moti-

vation, conscien-

tiousness)

Employees

Was

action

effective in

meeting

goal?

Delivery platform

¥ One on one

¥ Classroom/

workshop

¥ Self-paced paper

¥ Self-paced computer

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their individual and occupational needs makes the most of available options and

enhances a successful transition. Counselors must be cognizant of issues that may

limit the effectiveness of specific actions or modes of delivery when working with

mature adults. For example, some mature adults may be uncomfortable using

self-paced computer programs to learn new skills. Others may be less likely to opt

for a full-scale education program requiring four years of college because it is too

time-intensive. Over time, individuals can revisit the career pathing elements as

needed. There may be a need to redefine goals or reassess skill set depending on

the situation and on voluntary or involuntary career shifts.

Job Loss Arguably, the career transition that may have the most severe conse-

quences is the loss of a job. Organizational merging, downsizing, or restructur-

ing, economic downturns, and individual illness or disability are all potential

contributors to job loss. With declines in product demand and profits, companies

are laying off hundreds of workers for indefinite time periods. Recently, job loss

has affected thousands of workers in both blue- and white-collar labor sectors

due to a sluggish and uncertain U.S. economy. Disabilities contribute to job loss

when individuals are no longer able to function in the capacity required by a spe-

cific job. For example, a bulldozer operator who is blinded in an accident would

not be able to effectively function in this position and would, therefore, lose his

or her job.

Job loss and ongoing unemployment can have serious repercussions for mature

adults. When they seek work, it takes them longer to obtain employment than

younger workers. For mature adults with low education levels, it is even more dif-

ficult to find another position (Kinicki, 1989). For those who have advanced

within the corporate structure, these middle-age adults are “faced with the

prospect of being unable to find a position of comparable status and may not be

ready to retire” (Aiken, 1998, p. 274). Job opportunities become more limited for

mature adults, and those opportunities that are available may be incompatible

with these individuals’ education or experience. (See chapters on job search re-

search and implementation strategies by, respectively, Saks, Chapter 7, & Jome &

Phillips, Chapter 19, this volume.)

Job loss can also lead to compromised physical and psychological health. Job

loss is associated with increased anxiety, depression, feelings of isolation, feelings

of failure and rejection, as well as lowered confidence and self-esteem and stress-

related somatic complaints (DeFrank & Ivancevich, 1986; Eby & Buch, 1994; Kelvin

& Jarrett, 1985). Further, job loss increases the likelihood of marital difficulties

and financial problems. There are a host of adverse effects resulting from job loss.

To offset these effects, a counselor might naturally want to engage the mature

adult client in job search activities. But, according to Eby and Buch, an “effective

job search process cannot commence until an individual has adequately dealt with

the psychological issues related to their job loss” (p. 71). At the same time, some

individuals may not have the supports in place (e.g., adequate savings, access to

counseling) to delay their job search. Other individuals may be able to mount an

effective job search despite their psychological distress. Still others might slip fur-

ther into despair and depression if they did not have the structure of the job search

process. It behooves counselors to consider both individual differences in re-

sponse to job loss and variations in the contextual resources to which individuals

have access as appropriate interventions for mature adults are determined.

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Counseling for Career Transition: Career Pathing, Job Loss, and Reentry 631

Responses to job loss can be framed within the loss/grief stages referred to

earlier in this chapter. In the denial stage, a person first informed of impending

unemployment may be stunned and think, “I cannot believe this is happening to

me.” He or she may go through a period of confusion, panic, fear, or guilt over the

situation. After people realize their jobs are ending, they may become angry and

feel deceived, cheated by the employer, rejected, and frustrated. This represents

the anger stage. Mature adults may take their anger out on family and friends

during this stage. During the bargaining stage, individuals want to buy more

time. They may ask for divine intervention and have unrealistic hope about main-

taining employment. Then, the reality of the situation hits, and people may expe-

rience sadness and hopelessness as part of the depression stage. If the depression

is severe enough, normal functioning may be inhibited. There may be decreased

contact with others and an inability to make decisions. Finally, people in the ac-

ceptance stage face up to the realities of the situation and start to engage in con-

structive thinking and action. Although there may be continuing reservation and

concern, there is increased hope and excitement about what lies ahead. By under-

standing these responses, counselors are better equipped to help clients work

through

their reactions to the job loss transition.

Reentry Labor market reentry is the final career transition alternative consid-

ered here. This alternative applies to individuals who have focused their time

(usually a number of years) and energy on roles other than that of paid worker. Al-

though both men and women may prepare for reentry, it is primarily women who

experience this career transition alternative. Those who consider reentry may be

single heads of households, displaced homemakers, empty-nesters, or those mar-

ried with children but seeking other venues (Padula, 1994). Reentry

may be moti-

vated by vocational, family, or financial factors (Padula, 1994). There may be a

desire to have a career and become self-supporting.

Many women “continue to delay establishing their vocational role until after 35

years of age when they have established their family roles” (Padula, 1994, p. 10).

Once children enter school or grow up and leave home, women may want to con-

centrate their energies on reentering the labor force. A reason for reentry among

homemakers who have primarily worked without remuneration to care for home

and family is that they become financially responsible for themselves due to dis-

ability, divorce, death, or other circumstances related to their spouses (Moss &

Baugh, 1983). Referred to as displaced homemakers, these women may never have

anticipated working outside the home, think they lack marketable skills, and be

unsure how and where to seek help (Moss & Baugh, 1983).

Reentry women often have multiple responsibilities that include caring for

children, maintaining a home, and volunteering in the community. They may ex-

perience role conflict and emotional distress as they attempt to balance family

demands and work obligations (see Vetter, Hull, Putzstuck, & Dean, 1986, for a

more complete discussion). Other common difficulties include low self-concept,

underconfidence about abilities, and relatively lower autonomy and assertiveness

than women already engaged in careers. To effectively counsel reentry women,

counselors must take into account such factors. Counselors must also consider

the theoretical and empirical perspectives that can enhance their understanding

of mature adult workers and guide the process by which they assist them in ca-

reer transition. These perspectives are discussed next.

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MATURE ADULT CONCERNS:

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVES

Career counselors assume that clients will inevitably face transition points in

their lives, whether voluntary or involuntary. These points may be the result of job

loss, change of life circumstance, or natural career progression. In this chapter,

we call these transition alternatives job loss, reentry, and career pathing. The coun-

selor’s first major task is to organize the complex, multifaceted information being

presented to them by the client. Once this information is organized, it must be

put into a conceptual framework that identifies the salient issues, desired out-

comes, and plan of action. At this point, the counselor and client must enter into

a shared agreement and commitment to pursue these agreed-on actions.

Put another way, we believe that theory serves as the linchpin by which coun-

selors implicitly or explicitly organize information, create an explanation for the

client’s expressed and implied difficulties or desires, and determine action steps

(Robbins, 1989). Given the potential complexity of mature adult issues, it is im-

perative that we have a coherent conceptualization of the salient or defining con-

structs of interest in our clients’ lives. These constructs frequently require both a

career and personal focus, with implications for expected outcomes. In shaping a

counselor’s approach, career and adult development theories help to:

1. Surface the critical connection between a counselor’s worldview and the ac-

tions taken to assist clients.

2. Reinforce the need for conceptual and practical consistency in action.

3. Integrate career and personal issues when addressing the needs of mature

adults.

The four career development theories we chose for inclusion are well-

established and supported approaches to understanding career development. The

first two represent person-environment (P-E) fit models, with an emphasis on the

assessment and exploration of personal and work environment attributes, and

their corresponding congruence or fit. The third is a developmental approach to

career development, and the fourth has its roots in social learning theory. The

two adult development theories were selected because of their robustness and rel-

evance to issues of concern to mature adults. Regardless of the context in which

these theories were developed, they all lend themselves to identifying both ca-

reer and personal issues and to establishing clear, measurable client outcomes.

We briefly discuss each theory and then return to the typical issues brought into

counseling by mature adults experiencing a career transition.

A Person-Environment Fit Perspective Both the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjust-

ment (see Dawis, Chapter 1, this volume; Hesketh, 2000) and Holland’s (Spokane

& Cruza-Guet, Chapter 2, this volume) theory of vocational types focus on the in-

terrelationships between personal and work environment characteristics that af-

fect career satisfaction and work productivity. Counselors have historically used

assessment to identify and match key constructs with the intent of ensuring

proper placement and training, resulting in both satisfaction and productivity

outcomes.

As with any client, the P-E fit perspective would suggest that the mature

adult focus on identifying and matching key abilities, values, and interests with

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potential work settings and occupations. A critical issue in this process is the no-

tion of transfer of skills, or the generalization of past work and life experiences to

novel or alternative settings. This is critical to the success of adult workers who face

the pressure of obtaining a new job after experiencing job loss, a dramatic revision

of their career path, or reentry into the workforce. As we have discussed, personal

reactions may impede the systematic analysis and execution of a career search plan

using a P-E fit approach: The experience of reduced self-esteem due to job and per-

sonal losses and indecision and anxiety about an uncertain future must be ac-

knowledged and overcome. Ultimately, the P-E approach assumes that work

attainment and satisfaction are the positive outcomes and indicators of success.

Super’s Career Development Theory An alternative approach to understanding the

issues facing the adult worker is found in Super’s (Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996)

lifespan/lifespace career development theory. Within this conception, understand-

ing

the life stages and roles of individuals is critical to helping them frame their

needs and expectations. Identification and elaboration of work self-concept, an

individual’s personal values and goals at this stage of life, and level of career ma-

turity are central to career counseling. Career concerns include the establishment

of clear work goals and skills necessary to compete with others and the identifi-

tion of desired work. Personal concerns include the individual’s accepting his

or her limitations, understanding multiple role demands and fulfillment at this

stage of life, and grappling with the potential loss of job security. Vocational

choices are viewed as embedded within a broader model of life satisfaction and

adjustment, and the actual process of finding a job is seen as leading to increased

self-concept development.

Social Cognitive Career Theory Contemporary models of career development have

drawn heavily on social learning theory (see Krumboltz & Henderson, 2002). More

specifically, social cognitive theory (see Lent, Chapter 5, this volume), a consider-

able updating, extension, and recasting of social learning theory, emphasizes moti-

vational factors such as self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations to explain

the career development process. These salient constructs are viewed as central to an

individual’s ability to marshal his or her internal and external resources when

identifying, choosing, and acting on a career plan. Problems in the career planning

and job search process are attributed to self-defeating and faulty career choice be-

liefs, unrealistic appraisals, and impaired decision-making ability. Personal issues

for an adult client may center around financial and performance anxiety and on

concerns about lack of abilities, negative outcome expectations, environmental bar-

riers, and support systems.

Adult Development Theories Our discussion of the conceptual underpinnings of

career counseling for mature adult clients can also be embedded in the broader

adult development theoretical literature. Two of the prevailing theories that ad-

dress potential career and personal issues are Baltes’ (1997) selective optimization

with compensation theory and Atchley’s (1989) continuity theory. Baltes’

theory

holds that people demonstrate considerable plasticity or compensatory behavior

to accommodate as they age. In a sense, this theory highlights the importance

of realistic appraisal and creative adaptive strategies to take full advantage

(i.e., optimize) current and past skills within the context of changing task

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demands. Emotionally, this requires acceptance of gradually diminishing internal

resources while maintaining a sense of personal agency or control. Vondracek and

Porfeli (2002) have integrated the selective optimization model with Super’s (Super

et al., 1996) developmental theory to provide a “developmental-contextual” per-

spective on adult career development. More specifically, they elaborate a life span

development perspective by emphasizing environmental and social influences on

the developmental process. From this perspective, key factors include selection

pressures, adaptive processes, and enhanced functioning outcomes. These key fac-

tors are a direct consequence of, and interaction with, the environment.

Atchley’s (1989) continuity theory reflects the strong emphasis in the adult de-

velopment literature on maintaining a sense of life purpose or meaning across im-

portant middle-age, young-old, and old-old life transition points (cf. Robbins, Lee,

et al., 1994). Making adaptive or realistic choices is a matter of connecting past

work with future work within the context of internal and external changes. At a

personal level, this requires both emotional risk and social (e.g., peer and family)

support. As Robbins, Lee, et al. found, goal continuity, or the ability to maintain a

sense of equilibrium or balance as evidenced by an inner sense of goal direction,

life meaning, and purpose, was a critical mediator of adjustment as middle-age

adults moved into early retirement and alternative work settings from their pri-

mary careers or jobs. They found that the ability to use financial, health, and so-

cial resources was dependent on a person’s ability to access them. Conversely, a

sense of discontinuity, or an inability to create and sustain goal-directed behavior,

is viewed as a significant indicator of maladaptation. The implications for career

counseling are clear: Clients demonstrating an inability to sustain purpose and di-

rection during times of transition will not be able to access available resources or

to use them in achieving a career plan. They will also demonstrate decreased per-

sonal and interpersonal satisfaction.

OMMONLY

BSERVED

SSUES

Although the mature adult population represents a heterogeneous group of indi-

viduals with varied needs and issues, the adult career counseling literature

(Kerka, 1995; Newman, 1995; Rife & Belcher, 1993) suggests some commonalities

in the career transition issues mature adults present to counselors. These issues

may include establishing a realistic self-appraisal of current skills and abilities;

dealing with financial loss and anxiety; loss of job security, colleagues, and iden-

tity; lack of confidence and self-esteem; fear of failure; and age as a liability. The

effects of these issues depend on a person’s ability to access and use internal and

external resources, given the circumstances.

One issue that may confront mature adults is developing a realistic self-

appraisal of their skills and abilities. After working many years in specific ca-

reers, the day-to-day tasks people carry out become second nature. They do not

stop and think about the skills needed to complete those tasks. For example,

homemakers with numerous responsibilities may be unable to see how their

skills generalize to job requirements in the workplace. Counselors can assist ma-

ture adults by obtaining a complete and detailed history that charts the assort-

ment of skills and abilities used along the way. Throughout this process, clients

are positively recognized for their activities and accomplishments, while at the

same time considering whether they need to upgrade their skills or whether their

current abilities would enable them to successfully perform in certain jobs.

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Counseling for Career Transition: Career Pathing, Job Loss, and Reentry 635

Finances may be a critical issue for mature adults, especially among individu-

als who have lost jobs or are reentering the workforce. Decreases in income can

have significant financial and personal consequences. Many mature adults do not

have a sizeable nest egg to sustain them during periods of unemployment. With-

out financial security, these individuals experience considerable stress over pay-

ing monthly expenses, affording health insurance, retaining their homes, and

providing for the needs of family members. Financial problems are a major reason

for family conflict and marital discord. People feel powerless when they struggle

with finances because they have little control over their options. For mature

adults, it can be extremely disconcerting if they had stable lifestyles and steady

incomes before career transition. In addition, some mature adults are not com-

fortable discussing their financial situation and may be embarrassed to divulge

their limited resources. Counselors must be sensitive to their clients’ financial

circumstances while at the same time working with them to offset the potential

consequences of economic insecurity.

During times of career transition, the loss of job security, colleagues, and iden-

tity may become more acute and intensely experienced among mature adults.

These individuals may have a well-established career identity, which is forfeited.

This commonly encountered concern is less relevant for workforce reentrants than

for career pathers or those experiencing job loss. The loss of work translates into

the loss of a self-defining characteristic (Holm & Hovland, 1999). Leaving or

changing a job also means leaving colleagues and regular social relationships. Ca-

reer transitions alter people’s daily habits and activities. As described by Kelvin

(1981), “the need to work, and the work itself, provide a structure to life through

specifying the time, place, and patterns of many of one’s activities—including pat-

terns of social relationships imposed by the interdependence of people in their

working situation” (p. 8). The loss of social supports and daily routines may com-

promise an individual’s ability to mobilize psychological resources. These losses

limit coping and problem-solving abilities and diminish life satisfaction.

A lack of confidence and self-esteem and a fear of failure may also be experi-

enced by mature adults during career transition. With the loss of a job, people

lose their sense of worth and feel devalued as less productive members of society.

For people who have worked comfortably in a certain job for years or are reenter-

ing the workforce, the prospect of entering a completely new position can inspire

fear of failure because they are unsure of their ability to adjust and perform dif-

ferent tasks. Level of confidence and self-esteem may be compromised during any

of the three career transition alternatives discussed in this chapter. For coun-

selors working with mature adults, the need for support, encouragement, and ac-

tive preparation is crucial to their adjustment and success. Lent and Brown’s

(2002) social cognitive theory comprehensively details the role of self-efficacy and

outcome expectations in response to life transitions.

Mature adults may view age as a liability, which is reinforced by our youth-

ori

ented culture. Employers view mature adults in the context of increasing pen-

sion and health insurance costs and a perceived lack of mobility (Newman, 1995).

Potential employers “may wonder if the investment of time, money, and training

is warranted in the case of the older career changer” (p. 65), given that these indi-

viduals will not be in the labor force as long as younger workers. According to

Eby and Buch (1995), “It is well documented that older workers experience longer

periods of unemployment, are less likely to be retrained at another job, and face

the very real possibility of age discrimination” (p. 27).

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