Duffy Christopher. Red Storm On The Reich (ENG)

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the Reich was stable and under control, the gauleiters did what

they could to prevent the Wehrmacht from building defences

in depth, and almost everywhere they kept the civilians in place

until after the Russians had effected their breakthroughs and

made an orderly escape impossible. When Karl Hanke executed

the mayor of Breslau, or the SS Sonderkommandos left rows of

corpses dangling from the trees in Danzig, it was further proof

of how far the Germans had now become the victims of their

own masters.

None of this deterred the gauleiters from going to consid-

erable lengths to save their own skins. The most notorious

example was again provided by Hanke, in the episode of the

Kaiserstrasse airstrip at Breslau, but there were several others.

In Pomerania Franz Schwede-Coburg demanded that every vil-

lage be made into a fortress, but he himself moved his head-

quarters several times to avoid capture, and on 4 May he made

good his escape by sea from the island of Rügen.

Help was forthcoming from some remarkable quarters. Eigh-

teen French prisoners of war were among the fifty-six people

murdered by the Russians at Krenau in East Prussia, and for a

large number of ex-Allied soldiers the prospect of 'liberation'

became distinctly unappealing. Many of the refugee columns

were led to safety by French, Poles and Russians, and Lieu-

tenant Hans Schäufler testified to

something which struck me again and again, how nearly

all the peasant households from East and West Prussia were

accompanied by French prisoners of war, who took sedulous

care of 'their' families, and were much concerned not to be

separated from them in the turmoil. They were usually the

only males in the column, apart from some sick old men.

They were attached above all to the welfare of the children,

and these in turn were exceedingly fond of their 'Jean.'

(Schäufler, 1979,120. See also Dieckert and Grossmann, 1960,

102.)

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The same Panzer lieutenant tells in circumstantial detail the

story of thirty-two British officer prisoners of war who had been

abandoned by the Germans in the camp at Schlossberg in east-

ernmost East Prussia. The Russians tried to transport them east

to some unspecified destination, but the British broke free and

made their way across the width of East Prussia until they

reached the 35th Panzer Regiment of the 4th Panzer Division

at Heiderode:

In the polite English way, and with all proper courtesy,

they emphasised that they wanted to come back and stay

with us. Without any prompting they assured us that, if

necessary, they would be willing to fight on the German side.

We had been sunk in gloom, and you may imagine how

their request gave a mighty boost to our morale. Naturally

we took them in, and we willingly shared our rations and

cigarettes.

It transpired that four of the party had been captured by the

4th Panzer Division at Béthune in 1940. The last that was seen

of the officers was in late March or early April, when they were

waiting with thousands of German soldiers and civilians to be

shipped from Oxhöft (Schäufler, 1979, 119-20; see also Schäu-

fler, 1973, 245). This episode invites further investigation.

On the far side of Danzig was the Vistula delta. It was one

of the enclaves which were held by the Germans until the end

of the war, and for the historian Andreas Hillgruber it was

significant that even this little patch of ground held a concen-

tration camp, the one at Stutthof, which therefore remained 'a

symbol of the essential nature of the National Socialist regime'

(Hillgruber, 1986, 39). It is perhaps churlish to add that the

6,000 inmates had been turned loose by their SS guards, but

preferred to wait with the Germans on the coast for evacuation

to Schleswig-Holstein rather than take their chance with the

Russians.

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The OKW War Diaries describe the retreat of the German

forces from the East in an entirely dispassionate tone: 'Plessin

has been lost . . . the suburb of Kietz at Küstrin has been lost,'

and so on. What was being 'lost,' however, was not just terrain

in the military context, but homes, familiar landscapes and

hundreds of years of Germanic history and culture. The timing

of these events was significant, for German imaginations were

still borne on the tide of historic romanticism, which had set

in early in the nineteenth century and reached its last flood in

the Third Reich. The Soviets too were open to sensations of the

sort, after Stalin had invoked the spirit of the patriotic Russian

past in 1941. For that reason something that was composed and

ritualistic emerged amid all the squalor, heartbreak and suffer-

ing.

It was noticed that when German families abandoned their

homes in East Pomerania for what they knew would be the last

time, they left everything in immaculate order, as if they ex-

pected to return from a shopping expedition to town. Decorum

was no less important to Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia,

who made a final visit to the church on his estate at Cadinen

near Elbing, where he played the organ, lit the candles on the

altar and closed the door behind him. On 25 March Colonel

Christern was on his way through Danzig to take command of

the 4th Panzer Division, which was a reasonably urgent com-

mission at that time. Greatly to the surprise of his lieutenant

of signals, he turned aside into one of the few intact churches:

The colonel looked about inquisitively, and then a delicate

smile lit his battle-scarred face. He shot a silent glance at me

to indicate that I was to seat myself on a bench, whereupon

he and the driver climbed a steep flight of steps to the loft.

The bench was massive and dark brown with age, and I was

somewhat uncomfortable sitting there while the rumble of

combat carried from outside. Then I nearly jumped out of

my skin . . . the organ roared into music, subduing the

sounds of killing and enabling me to forget the war about

CHRISTOPHER DUFFY

280

The Sudetenland, Bohemia and Moravia

'Czechoslovakia' lived in walled-off seclusion from the war as

a whole. In terms of international politics Hitler had been un-

deniably brutal in his treatment of that country. In virtue of the

Munich Agreement the Reich annexed the largely German-

speaking Sudetenland in northern Czechoslovakia in the au-

tumn of 1938. Then in March 1939 German forces marched into

the remainder of Czechoslovakia, whereupon Bohemia and Mo-

ravia became a 'protectorate' under German rule, and Slovakia

emerged as a right-wing client state.

The history of the German occupation of Czechoslovakia is

stained by the horror of Lidice, a village which was destroyed

along with its people on the direct orders of Hitler, after the

Reichsprotektor, Reinhard Heydrich, was assassinated in 1942.

However, that killing was not the culminating point of some

great saga of national resistance, but an isolated deed which

was carried out by a small party of highly trained and highly

motivated Czechs who had been parachuted in by the British.

The everyday reality of life in 'Czechoslovakia' was still one of

cohabitation of Czechs, ethnic Germans and occupying German

forces. The Czechs had lost their country and their political

freedoms, but few of them suffered any significant infringe-

ments of their personal liberty or property, and in the gross

material sense their standard of living was higher than that of

the civilians in the historic Reich. The contribution of the Czech

economy to the German war effort has still to be assessed, but

it was undeniably great, and when we compare what happened

to Warsaw to what did not happen to Prague it was incon-

testably better to have been a 'betrayed' Czech than a 'saved'

Pole.

This peaceful if hardly idyllic existence came to an end early

in May 1945, when Soviet forces burst into the heart of Bohemia

and Moravia. On the ninth the first Russian forces penetrated

Prague and attacked a column of German troops and civilians

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who were about to leave the city. Some were killed on the spot,

and others perished over the following hours:

Can we apply the word 'men' to those creatures who car-

ried out the atrocities on 9 May on the Wenceslas and Charles

squares and along the Road of the Knights, when they poured

petrol over the Germans (and not just SS men), hung them

feet upwards from poles and lanterns, set them alight and

stood mocking at the sight of the burning torches? Their

agony lasted all the longer, because they were deliberately

hung head downwards so that they would not be suffocated

by the smoke. They were not real men who tied together

civilians and women, as well as German soldiers, with steel

wire, then shot them and threw the human bundles into the

Moldau. (Thorwald, 1951, 383)

This was the opening scene of months of massacre and bru-

tality which extended beyond Prague to all the areas of Czecho-

slovakia in which ethnic Germans were living. What is

extraordinary in this grisly episode is that the initiative was

taken by the Czech civilians rather than the Soviet troops, who

indeed had the best of reasons to hate the Germans. Not until

1989 was the Czech government prepared to admit that some

shameful episodes had taken place.

The Baltic Provinces—East Prussia, West Prussia

and East Pomerania

In so far as the spread of Germanism to the East had a military

character, it was associated with the crusading order of the

Teutonic Knights, who won East Prussia from the pagans in

forty years of warfare in the thirteenth century. The political

power of the Teutonic Order suffered a mortal blow at the

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hands of a Polish army in the battle of Tannenberg, on 15 July

1410. However, the advance of the Poles was checked at the

Marienburg castle in West Prussia, and a lenient peace left the

German presence in East Prussia essentially intact. In 1525 East

Prussia became a secular duchy in fief to Poland, but Königs-

berg and the other towns remained as distinctly Germanic in

character as ever, and in 1701 East Prussia became the legal

seat of the new Prussian monarchy, when the Elector Frederick

had himself pronounced king 'in' East Prussia, in the peculiar

wording of the formula.

In 1758 East Prussia was occupied by the army of Empress

Elizabeth of Russia, and (although German historians did not

like to mention it) the local Germans were more than content

under the subsequent five years of enlightened Russian rule.

The Russians came this way again when two armies broke

across the border in August 1914. By that time nationalistic

romanticism had elevated East Prussia from the status of a

backwoods province to a symbol of the austerity of the Prussian

character and of the German presence in the East. General Paul

von Hindenburg and his chief of staff, General Erich von Lu-

dendorff, proceeded to rout the invading armies at a second

battle of Tannenberg (24-31 August) and at the battle of the

Masurian Lakes (5-15 September).

In the German consciousness the East Prussian type which

survived such ordeals was wholly admirable. General Otto

Lasch, who defended Königsberg in 1945, was not a genuine

East Prussian by birth, but he was proud to count himself as

an honorary East Prussian in virtue of his marriage and the

time he had spent there in his military and sporting career:

This was where an upright Germanic race of men had,

though centuries of laborious effort. . . brought a barren soil

under cultivation. That ground evoked in them feelings of

immutable love and remarkable loyalty. They are reserved

and reticent towards all strangers, but they show exemplary

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hospitality and attachment to those they recognise to be hon-

ourable and worthy of trust. (Lasch, 1977, 8)

For the Soviets in 1945 East Prussia was the seat of the mil-

itaristic Junker class. In the days before the great offensive the

soldiers of the 3rd Belorussian Front were reminded:

Comrades! You have reached the borders of East Prussia,

and you will now tread on that ground which gave birth to

those fascist monsters who devastated our cities and homes,

and slaughtered our sons and daughters, our brothers and

sisters, our wives and mothers. The most inveterate of those

brigands and Nazis sprang from East Prussia. For many years

now they have held power in Germany, directing this nation

in its foreign aggressions and its genocide of other peoples.

(Beloborodov, 1978, 98. See also Dragon, 1977, 95; Koyander,

1978, 231)

The memory of the events of 1914 survived into the final

years of the Second World War. Churchill wrote to Stalin on

20 February 1944 to explain that in his view the two wars against

Germany formed a single struggle, and that the Russian sac-

rifices in 1914 had established a moral right to Königsberg and

the adjacent part of East Prussia. By the second half of January

1945 the Germans on their side were faced with the imminent

loss of the holy ground of Tannenberg. They blew up the mas-

sive Tannenberg Memorial before it could be desecrated by the

Russians, and on the twentieth Lieutenant-General Oskar von

Hindenburg supervised the evacuation of the colours of the

Prussian regiments and the coffins of his mother and father on

board a cruiser.

Further towards the heartland of the Reich, the Gau of Dan-

zig-West Prussia corresponded with the former free city of Dan-

zig and the Polish Corridor. The region as a whole was one of

bitter memories for Poles and Germans alike. West Prussia had

CHRISTOPHER DUFFY

284

been annexed from Poland by Prussia in 1772, and remained a

predominantly Slavonic area under alien rule until it was re-

turned to Poland after the Great War. Danzig was a different

case, for this prosperous trading city had always been Germanic

in character. It was annexed by Prussia in 1793, and by 1914

96 per cent of the population was German. After the Great War

Danzig was declared a free city, a state of affairs which was

just as displeasing to the Germans as it was to the Poles, who

from 1924 built up Gdynia (Gotenhafen) as a rival port in Polish

territory. The disputes over the status of the Polish Corridor

and Danzig led directly to the outbreak of war between Ger-

many and Poland on 1 September 1939.

Such was the inheritance of the new Gauleiter Albert Forster,

a humanitarian and idealist who believed that Germany had a

civilising vocation in the Slavonic lands: 'We can fulfil our great

cultural mission in the East only if we win the Polish people

over to us. Accommodation and trust will generate accom-

modation and trust in their turn. Mistrust just sows hostility'

(Thorwald, 1950, 262).

The task was inherently impossible, and Forster was broken

by the speed and magnitude of the events which overtook his

Gau in February and March 1945. The coastal strip on the west-

ern side of the Bight of Danzig, with Danzig, Zoppot, Goten-

hafen, Oxhöft and the Hela peninsula, became the refuge of

the German Second Army and the million or so civilians who

were awaiting rescue by sea (see p. 230).

The eastern barrier of the region was the Nogat branch of

the Vistula, with the Marienburg bridgehead. This castle had

been the last stronghold of the Teutonic Knights, and for the

Germans in 1945 it became the last base from which an attempt

might yet have been made to break through to East Prussia.

The order to abandon the Marienburg castle reached the de-

fenders on 8 March, but a group of officers lingered for a while

in a corner of the castle. The battle was raging outside, and the

light from the flares 'spread a magical illumination over that

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dark hall, revealing its mighty supporting pillars and the steep

curve of the ribbed vaulting' (Paul, 1978, 190).

To the west of the Polish Corridor the territory of East Pom-

erania was an old Prussian possession. Here the centre of mil-

itary historical tradition was the port of Kolberg, which had

undergone repeated sieges since the seventeenth century, and

notably the fifth and most recent in 1807, an episode which

provoked Goebbels into the ultimate excesses of romanticism.

Thousands of metres of colour film, thousands of still more

precious troops, a budget of 8.5 million marks, and the talents

of Veit Harlan (the director of Jew Süss) were devoted to re-

creating the events of 19 March to 1 July of that year. When

the rest of Prussia had fallen to Napoleon, little Kolberg had

been inspired to successful resistance by the sturdy townsman

Joachim Nettelbeck, and by the energetic young Major von

Gneisenau, who took over the military command in April.

Goebbels, as gauleiter of Berlin, identified himself with Net-

telbeck, and wrote the final stirring speech which was put into

Nettlebeck's mouth. Gneisenau represented National Socialist

leaders in the style of Schörner, and it was just as easy to find

modern parallels for the deadbeat old military governor Lou-

cadou, and the violin-playing defeatists who had favoured giv-

ing up to the French in 1807.

The completed film Kolberg was premiered in Berlin on 30

January 1945, and prints were flown to Küstrin and other be-

leaguered fortresses. The critic Theo Fürstenau admired the lively

depiction of the burning roofs, the collapsing walls and the panic

among the townspeople, and Vice-Admiral Schirwitz radioed

Goebbels from La Rochelle to testify how he had been 'deeply

impressed by the heroic defence of the fortress of Kolberg, and

the unsurpassable artistry with which it has now been repre-

sented.' This was the day when the Russians were establishing

some of their first bridgeheads on the direct path to Berlin.

Kolberg was never shown in Kolberg itself, where the Poles

and Soviets arranged a sixth siege with still more impressive

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visual effects in March 1945. As a professional soldier and re-

sponsible individual, Colonel Fullriede interpreted his task as

being to hold off the enemy for just as long as he needed to

evacuate the civilians and the garrison (see p. 232). Fullriede's

operation was completely successful, but it did not suit Goeb-

bels and Hitler to let the world know that Kolberg had fallen,

and this truly notable episode passed without any reference in

the communiqués. Once again fantasy was preferred to reality

in the last weeks of the Reich.

Meanwhile the people of East Pomerania were paying for the

mismanagement of their affairs by the Nazi regime. In late

January Himmler, as commander of Army Group Vistula,

barred an escape route by rail from Schneidemühl by parking

his command train Steiermark in the Eastern Station at Deutsch

Krone. In February he forbade the evacuation of civilians from

East Pomerania altogether, with the full support of the Gauleiter

Franz Schwede-Coburg. The result was that when the Russian

tanks first reached the sea near Kolberg on 4 March, between

1,116,000 and 1,302,000 German civilians were cut off to the

east of the breakthrough, and were left with no escape except

in the direction of Danzig.

The Baltic provinces as a whole extended as a 'balcony' along

the coast, and they were segmented into progressively smaller

fragments whenever Russian columns drove north. The se-

quence is probably best shown in diagrammatic form

Stettin

8 March

nr. Kolberg

4 March

nr. Elbing

24 January

W. Pomerania Western

E. Pomerania

Eastern

E. Pomerania,

W. Prussia,

Danzig

E. Prussia

Long before these dates it was clear that escape by sea remained

the only resort for the majority of the Germans of the Baltic

lands.

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