Gino Moliterno. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Italian Culture
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‘economic miracle’ over 40 per cent of the corporate income of small and medium-sized
enterprises was reinvested.
The far less positive counterpart to the real prosperity attained within networks of
strong local identity by millions of Italian peasants of the North and centre, who had
emerged from a povertystricken agriculture only a few years earlier, was the much stonier
path to participation in the benefits of industrialization that southern peasants had to
tread, and the continuing relative deprivation of the South today.
Further reading
Bell, R.M. (1979) Fate and Honor, Family and Village: Demographic and Cultural Change in
Rural Italy since 1800, Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
Holmes, D.R. (1989) Cultural Disenchantments: Worker Peasantries in Northeast Italy, Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
Kertzer, D.I. (1984) Family Life in Central Italy, 1880–1910: Sharecropping, Wage Labour and
Coresidence, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Pitkin, D.S. (1985) The House that Giacomo built: The History of an Italian Family 1898–1978,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pratt, J. (1994) The Rationality of Rural Life: Economic and Cultural Change in Tuscany,
Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
ROGER ABSALOM
Penna, Sandro
b. 12 June 1906, Perugia; d. 23 January 1977, Rome
Poet
After a restless youth and a short period spent in Milan during which he held a series of
different jobs (accountant, bookstore sales clerk, proof-reader) Penna moved to Rome,
where he was to spend most of his life. His friendship with the poet Umberto Saba, and
the success of his first book of poetry helped him begin collaboration with several literary
journals, such as Corrente, Letteratura, Frontespizio, L’Ambrosiano, Primato, Poesia, La
Rassegna d’Italia and Paragone.
Penna’s first poetry collection, Poesie (1938), is the only work which predates the
Second World War, even though most of his poems could be qualified as ‘atemporal’.
The collection shows an existential slant, a physicality and an authenticity that
immediately set it apart from, and go beyond, the anti-rhetorical tendencies of the coeval
poetics of ermetismo (hermetism), characterized instead by an expressive research for the
essential and the absolute, for the poesia pura (pure poetry). It would be incorrect,
however, to affirm that Penna is completely extraneous to the hermetic experience. The
apparent simplicity and the general descriptive and narrative tone of his poetry shows the
direct influence of Umberto Saba, especially for its antimodernism, for its taste and
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preference of traditional words and its regular verse structure. But Penna’s poems
sometimes present also a bold allusivity and rapid sequences of images which may well
recall those of the hermetic poetics. The successful combination of these two stylistic and
formal aspects, together with a thematic which is inspired significantly by the poet’s
homosexuality, is what gives Penna’s poetry its originality and poignancy. His writing is
not tainted by any superfluous intellectualism, and it is simplified to the extreme. It aims
at seizing a particular moment or presenting a picture frozen in the flux of time. His
poetry is thus rich in images of streets, inns, movie theatres, public urinals and young
boys.
Nevertheless, the common language and simple rhymes, as well the sometimes
troubled and controversial content of the poems, do not prevent his poetry from reaching
a higher and more rarefied atmosphere where a profound and calm existential coherence
emerges. The publication and subsequent critical review, in 1957, of a collection of all
Penna’s poems written between 1927 and 1955, under the title of Poesie, has suggested
the possible existence of a third stage of his poetry, after the initial influence of Saba and
the hermetic experience. This would be characterized by a renewed vital energy and an
almost expressionistic quality which, nonetheless, directly stems from the fundamental
anxiety and melancholy that constitute the original roots of his lyrical enterprise.
See also: poetry
Further reading
Penna, S. (1950) Appunti (Notes), Milan: Edizioni della Meridiana.
— (1956) Una strana gioia di vivere (A Strange Joy of Living), Milan: Scheiwiller.
— (1970) Tutte le poesie (All the Poems), Milan: Garzanti.
Nava, G. (1991) ‘La lingua di Penna’ (The Language of Penna), Paragone 42:52–69 (an
examination of Penna’s poetic language).
Vaglio, A. (1993) Invito alla lettura di S. Penna (An Invitation to the Reading of S. Penna), Milan:
Mursia (a handy general introduction to Penna’s work).
ENRICO CESARETTI
pensiero debole
More of an intellectual approach than a doctrinaire movement, il pensiero debole, or
‘weak thought’, emerged in the 1980s as a common reaction on the part of some Italian
philosophers and thinkers to the perceived ‘crisis of classical reason’, a crisis usually
regarded as having been announced by Nietzsche in the late 1800s but which underlies
much of twentieth-century thought and which was graphically summed up in Italy by the
influential anthology of critical essays, Crisi della ragione (Crisis of Reason) edited by
Aldo Gargani and published by Einaudi in 1979.
Since weak thought was a reaction rather than a philosophical programme, its
adherents varied widely in their positions and it would be inaccurate to think of them as a
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school. What linked those who came to be associated with the label, however, was an
open acknowledgement of the ‘postmodern condition’ and an acceptance of the fact that,
in spite of all the successes of science and technology, Western rationality, on the basis of
the rigorous requirements it itself had established, could no longer justify its exclusive
claims to absolute Truth. In the light of the impossibility of henceforth making a ‘strong’
claim to truth, weak thought sought to avoid a total collapse into irrationalism by falling
back on a ‘weaker’ claim, which would firstly, recognize the validity of a multiplicity of
possible interpretations of the world, and secondly, propose models of understanding
founded on ‘reasonableness’ rather than Reason. The application of such models would,
of necessity, vary widely, but a sample of such approaches was published in 1983 as an
anthology titled, in fact, Il pensiero debole, which was edited by philosophers Gianni
Vattimo and Pier Aldo Rovatti (who, in their preface, explained their use of the term)
and included essays by both editors as well as by Umberto Eco and other leading Italian
thinkers. The anthology and the approach were widely discussed, and the tag was used
often in the late 1980s though by the late 1990s it had fallen into disuse.
Further reading
Rosso, S. (1990) ‘Postmodern Italy: Notes on the “Crisis of Reason”, “Weak Thought” and The
Name of the Rose’, in Exploring Postmodernism, ed. M.Calinescu and D.Fokkema, Amsterdam
and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
GINO MOLITERNO
pentiti
The term pentiti (literally ‘those who have repented’) first came into popular use in 1980
to designate the members of left-wing terrorist groups who renounced political violence,
turned state’s evidence and qualified for the reduced sentences envisaged by part of the
anti-terrorist ‘emergency legislation’. Despite misgivings over its identification of motive
(repentance) and action (supplying evidence), the term was subsequently used for all
participants in any crime or criminal association, including the mafia, who collaborated
with prosecutors and police. Their testimony became an essential element in the
successful repression of political violence, organized crime and political corruption, but
the impact of heavy reliance on evidence provided by self-confessed criminals about their
former comrades or enemies remained controversial for the judicial system. Furthermore,
the volatile mix concocted from the repudiation of solidarities, remorse for victims and
pursuit of personal advantage—in continuous, often compelling, display in courtrooms,
television studios and autobiographies—has given the practice of secular ‘repentance’
and confession a central place in contemporary Italian culture, sustained by the very
familiarity of Catholic rites of absolution.
Reductions of sentences had long been available to criminals whose collaboration
helped to avert some of the damage of their actions. The novelty of the ‘emergency
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legislation’ was to make benefits conditional on the public reconstruction of the
collaborator’s identity. The so-called ‘Cossiga’ law of 1980 required a truthful
confession, full collaboration, explicit rejection of violence and abandonment of all links
to terrorist organizations in order to qualify for sentence reductions for the most serious
crimes, short of bomb massacres. Laws in 1982 and 1987 extended similar benefits to
lesser offences and to collaborators (dissociati) who confessed their own responsibilities
but refused to name others. Further discretionary benefits of financial help, changes of
name and protection from betrayed comrades were available to the most important
pentiti. The rewards for collaboration undoubtedly helped to encourage defections by
members of armed political groups who had already lost their faith in violence, but the
specific ideological motivations behind political terrorism made Parliament wary of
extending similar legally prescribed benefits to collaborators from nonpolitical criminal
associations. It took not only the verified confessions of senior mafiosi but also the
retaliatory murders of many of their kin (thirtyseven of Tommaso Buscetta’s relatives
were killed in revenge for his confessions to the prosecutor Falcone) for Parliament in
1991 to acknowledge collaboration as an extenuating circumstance for mafiosi and to
introduce a formal witness protection programme which by 1996 covered 5,361 family
members of 1,231 collaborating ex-mafiosi.
Permitting cases and convictions to rest substantially on evidence provided by self-
confessed criminals has given rise to fierce controversies inside and outside the judicial
system. Pentiti have been denounced for making false or incomplete confessions to settle
old scores, secure their own immunity or achieve public notoriety. Prosecutors have been
accused of neglecting to search for more reliable or confirmatory evidence once they
have elicited a confession; complaints have also been made about their use of the rewards
for collaboration to put unreasonable pressure on suspects to confess, demolishing in
practice the right to remain silent. Courts, faced with the demand to assess the overall
credibility of pentiti and therefore to accept or reject their testimony in its entirety, have
sometimes seemed too ready to overlook discrepancies and ignore counter-evidence from
defendants who have not collaborated. Calibrating sentences according to the defendant’s
readiness to collaborate can produce strikingly unequal punishments for identical
offences and thus undermine the principle of equality before the law. Victims have had to
accept that their ‘repentant’ aggressors may go virtually unpunished. Repeated
pronouncements by Italy’s highest court that confessions by pentiti are admissible as
proof provided they can be supported by other evidence or by clearly independent
testimony from other collaborators has not succeeded in dispelling doubts about their
impact on the certainty and impartiality of judicial processes.
Of the many controversial cases involving pentiti, three stand out due to the status of
the defendants. In 1983 a popular television personality, Enzo Tortora, was arrested for
drug trafficking and Camorra membership, solely on the basis of the testimony of
collaborators from the Camorra itself. His conviction was overturned on appeal in 1986,
which not only threw general suspicion on the use of confessions in prosecution cases but
helped to ensure popular support for the referendum of 1987 to increase the civil liability
of prosecutors for professional mistakes. In 1993, charges of mafia membership, resting
on testimony by eight collaborating ex-mafiosi, were laid against Italy’s former Prime
Minister, Giulio Andreotti. Whether accepted in court or not, the confessions contributed
to the discrediting of the pre-Tangentopoli political class and narrowed the perceived
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distance between politics and crime in postwar Italy. Lastly, in 1988 Adriano Sofri, a
leading figure in the longdefunct Lotta Continua was arrested for having ordered the
political murder of a police officer in 1972, on the basis of a highly contentious
confession provided by a belatedly ‘repentant’ member of the alleged murder squad. The
alternating verdicts of conviction and acquittal of Sofri and his fellow defendants in
successive trials between 1990 and 1997 demonstrated very clearly how courts could
reach completely opposite conclusions once they were mainly required to assess the
motivations, character and credibility of pentiti. The three cases fuelled the criticisms of
the judicial system for its inclination to accept intrinsically unreliable evidence as a way
of compensating for chronically inefficient organization. They also provide a warning
against allowing contemporary history to rely too heavily on evidence and interpretations
accepted in the courtroom.
See also: terrorism
Further reading
Chelazzi, G. (1981) La dissociazione dal terrorismo (Dissociation From Terrorism) Milan: Giuffré
(analysis of the 1980 law).
Foschini, M.V. and Montone, S. (1997) ‘Il caso Tortora’ (The Tortora Case), in L.Violante (ed.),
Storia d’Italia: Annali 12: La criminalità, Turin: Einaudi.
Ginzburg, C. (1990) Il giudice e lo storico (The Judge and the Historian), Turin: Einaudi
(historian’s scrutiny of the evidence and outcome of the first trial of Sofri).
Laudi, M. (1984) Terrorist ‘pentiti’ e liberazione condizionale, (‘Repentant’ Terrorists and
Conditional Release) Milan: Giuffré (analysis of the 1982 law).
Padovani, T. (1981) ‘La soave inquisizione: osservazioni e rilievi a proposito delle nuove ipotesi di
ravvedimento’ (The Gentle Inquisition: Observations and Remarks on the New Rules for
Repentance) Rivista italiana di diritto e procedura penale II: 529–45 (the novelty and
implications of the ‘repentance’ legis ation).
Peci, P. (1983) Io, l’infame, (I, The Abominable) Milan: Arnaldo Mondadori (autobiography of the
first Red Brigades defector to turn state’s evidence).
DAVID MOSS
Pertini, Alessandro (Sandro)
b. 25 September 1896, Savona; d. 24 February 1990, Rome
Politician
Unusually popular for a politician, Sandro Pertini was known universally as il nonno
degli italiani (the grandfather of Italians). A committed socialist who had spent most of
the Fascist period in prison, Pertini incarnated the spirit of the Resistance. From 1943 to
1945 he was a leader of the CLNAI (National Committee for the Liberation of Upper
Italy), but after the war his political career languished and his presidency came more as
the reward for failure than success. Nonetheless, Pertini gave the office a new relevance,
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and his probity and commitment to humane values assisted the Republic to recover from
the crises of the 1970s. Ironically, however, Pertini’s term coincided with the rise of
Bettino Craxi, another socialist, but one who embodied not probity and anti-fascism but
scandal and corruption.
R.J.B.BOSWORTH
Petrassi, Goffredo
b. 16 July 1904, Zagarolo
Composer
Petrassi studied at the Conservatory of S. Cecilia in Rome under Alessandro Bustini and
subsequently received much guidance from Alfredo Casella. In 1932–3 he won several
competitions with his orchestral Partita, and this work was consequently taken up by
conductors abroad. He was professor of composition at the Conservatory of S.Cecilia
(1939–59) and then succeeded Pizzetti at the Accademia S. Cecilia until 1974. His pupils
include Maxwell Davies, Clementi and Cardew.
Petrassi’s highly diverse compositional style has occasioned comparisons with
Stravinsky. Early works display an incisiveness and energy that draws strength from
Italian composers of the seventeenth century as well as from contemporaries such as
Hindemith. With the coming of war, Petrassi’s style became darker and more austere (for
example, Coro di morti (Choir of the Dead), 1940–1) and tonality was to become
increasingly strained in the ensuing years. The opera Morte dell’ aria (Death in the Air)
(1949–50) and the cantata Noche oscura (Dark Night) (1950–1) were to provide evidence
of his mastery of extended forms, and the works of the 1960s were to renew his highly
personal allegiance to the predominant trends of the postwar avantgarde. Notable among
these are Propos d’Alain (1960), in which a baritone soloist declaims a philosophical text
against an instrumental accom- paniment of great complexity, and the Seventh Concerto
for Orchestra (1961–2, revised 1964) which exploits the forces of the orchestra at their
most extreme and intense.
Further reading
Annibaldi, C. (1971) ‘Goffredo Petrassi: catalogo delle opere e bibliografia’ (Catalogue
of Works and Bibliography), Milan.
JOHN KERSEY
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Petri, Elio (Eraclio)
b. 29 January 1929, Rome; d. 10 November 1982, Rome
Film director
After working as a journalist for L’Unità, and as a screenwriter (particularly for Giuseppe
De Santis), Petri made his directorial debut in 1961 with L’assassino (The Murderer). A
French-influenced police thriller, it displayed the mixture of symbolism and realism
which, along with a concentration on politics and the exercise of power, was to
characterize all of Petri’s films. His blend of biting satire and political commitment is
most explicit in the 1970 Indagine su un cittadino al di sopra di ogni sospetto
(Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion), a caustic critique of the untouchability of
corrupt police. La classe operaia va in paradiso (also released as Lulu the Tool), a
treatise on industrial exploitation, won the Palme d’Or at Cannes in 1971. Todo modo
(One Way or Another) (1976), adapted from a novel by Leonardo Sciascia, mercilessly
exposes the rotten core of the ruling Christian Democrat Party.
Further reading
Rossi, A. (1979) Petri, Florence: La Nuova Italia.
DAVE WATSON
photography
In his introduction to Fotografia 1943, published by Domus, Ermanno Scopinisch wrote:
The Italian photographer is reluctant to engage in technological research
and is still not fully aware of the necessity of becoming fully proficient
with photographic technology. The Italian photographer manages by the
skin of his teeth. He gets by in the studio with make-shift lighting, and in
the dark room with primitive equipment; he compensates for the poverty
of his instruments of work with his cunning.
(quoted in Zannier, 1979:280 (my translation))
If the cultural autocracy of the Fascist regime, with its stifling of intellectual creativity
and experiment, could be held partly responsible for this lamentable situation, a general
diffidence towards the immediacy of photographic language and its basis in mechanical
devices was also symptomatic of a culture dominated by a more ancient humanistic
tradition. In Italy, there had always been a widespread tendency to dismiss photography
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either as an artistic practice for amateurs or as a commercially based handicraft. Such a
persistent marginalization marked Italian photography with a sense of provincialism.
Changes were initiated in the 1940s by the Gruppo degli otto and by Domus, both
promoting innovation to bring Italian photography up to date with the European
avantgardes. Also in the immediate postwar years, a number of new publications were
launched including Tempo Illustrato, Oggi, L’Europeo directed by Arrigo Benedetti and,
in 1950, Epoca by Mondadori. Yet while developments in journalism and neorealism in
cinema (Rossellini, De Sica, Zavattini) aroused the enthusiasm of certain photographers
who recognized the sociological significance of photography, the Bussola Group,
founded by Giuseppe Cavalli in 1947, was rejecting documentary photography and
prolonging the diatribe, based on Crocean aesthetics, of photography as art. This
polarization between documentary and artistic photography would continue to
characterize the activity of Italian photographers for decades. In the 1950s the magazine
Ferrania, written by the photographers Guido Bezzola, Alfredo Ornano and Luigi
Veronesi, was the point of reference for Cavallian neo-formalists, while Pannunzio’s
magazine Il Mondo and Elio Vittorini’s Il Politecnico were publishing documentary
social realist images.
In this period, Italian publishing and illustrated journalism reached European levels
and, encouraged by the economic miracle which promoted a new market in visual
advertising, talented photographers like Mario De Biasi, Carlo Bavagnoli and Ugo Mulas
came to light. In Venice, rising stars of new Italian photography such as Paolo Monti,
Gianni Berengo-Gardin and Fulvio Roiter—who are still working today—were emerging
and formed the group La Gondola. Their individual work differs greatly, ranging from
the documentary, historicizing approach on the one hand through to the expression of a
purely personal and ahistorical sensibility on the other. Berengo-Gardin (b. 1930), who
worked as a freelance reporter, was much admired by Cesare Zavattini. The most
eloquent examples of Berengo-Gardin’s work are his images of Venice, his series of
photographs from India, and his pictures of Luzzara, the village he visited two decades
before Strand. Roiter (b. 1926) is famous for his evocative images of Venice, most of
which have been published in books, such as Essere Venezia (1977)—an all-colour
volume which sold 150,000 copies in three years in English, French, German and Italian.
In the 1960s there was increasing acknowledgement of the existence of a ‘culture’ of
photography and photographers finally emerged from what had been a peripheral ghetto.
The international magazine Camera, directed by Romeo Martinez, acted as an
intermediary between foreign masters—Haas, Cartier-Bresson, Steichen, Weston—and
Italian photographers. Within this ferment of ideas and styles, it was the work of
Berengo-Gardin, Franco Fontana, Mario Giacomelli and Giorgio Lotti, all with a
background in photojournalism, which displayed the greatest formal resolution.
Giacomelli (b. 1925) and Fontana (b. 1933) developed landscape photography in
particular, playing with the relationship between precise representation and abstraction.
Their work is exemplified by the early black and white, deeply contrasted images of the
Marche by Giacomelli, and by Fontana’s later colour landscapes of Basilicata, which at
first glance often appear to be abstract patterns of colour and geometric shapes. Of the
two, Fontana has been the most commercially and internationally successful, exhibiting
constantly worldwide throughout the 1970s to the 1990s. Giacomelli’s work is of a more
documentary nature, but is formally highly crafted nonetheless. Always in black and
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white, and printed on high-contrast paper, his images are the result of the photographer’s
close connection with his native country, and of his investigation of its inner reality.
In the late 1970s the fashion explosion and the success of Italian designers provided
another outlet for photographers in what could be considered a second Italian miracle,
bringing to the fore the talents of adventurous fashion photographers like Oliviero
Toscani. Elisabetta Catalano, later to become more widely known for her portraits,
extensively photographed the work of conceptual artists like Pistoletto and Pisani. This
period also saw a renewed interest in nineteenth-century photography, and 1979 marked
the great historical photographic exhibitions in Venice and Florence. Although younger
photographers such as Gabriele Basilico, Giovanna Borghese and Isabella Colonnello are
currently photographing the postindustrial landscape, in spaces along the edges of the
urban redevelopments and in the silent spaces of empty industrial plants, there
nevertheless remains a strong attachment to the classic photographic style of the turn of
the century
The Italian photographic scene in the late 1990s is dominated by the ‘heavyweights’ of
the older generation such as Romano Cagnoni (b. 1935), a photojournalist, whose images
from the wars of Biafra, Vietnam and Afghanistan set a standard for Italian
photojournalism: his last individual exhibition, ‘War in Yugoslavia’, was shown at the
Italian Institutes of Culture in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago and Washington DC in
1993. Lisetta Carmi (b. 1924) is best known for her book I Travestiti (Transvestites), a
particularly controversial subject in Italy. Mimmo Jodice (b. 1934), from Naples and
influenced by Frank, Klein, and Strand, works in a documentary fashion and has focused
largely on the contrasting faces of his native city. Pepi Merisio (b. 1931), from Bergamo,
has made most of his work in and about that area, showing the country life and deeply
felt religious devotion of a people confined to the borders of history. Ferdinando Scianna
(b. 1943) achieved renown with the book, Religious Festivals in Sicily (1965), with texts
by Sciascia; his work has much of the static, emblematic quality of Strand’s images, and
he is the most loved and imitated photographer in Italy. Marialba Russo (b. 1947), an
ethnographer, works in the south of Italy where she has investigated the religious
festivals and the archaic rites of the peasant community. Her interests are both
anthropological and psychological, and her photographs move away from an objective
documentary style, focusing instead through the use of sequence, movement and angle of
view on a far more objective response to events unfolding before her.
Other photographers working in the documentary tradition are Franco Grignani, Frank
Harvart, Cesare Leonardi, Enzo Ragazzini and the original ‘paparazzo’, Tazio
Secchiaroli, who in fact soon abandoned the sensationalist photography that had made
him famous in order to work on film sets, photographing, amongst others, all of Fellini’s
films. More formalist, postmodern concerns inform the work of Vasco Ascolini, who
photographs sculpture, architectural structures and theatre, and whose images have a
metaphysical quality; Luigi Ghirri (b. 1943), a conceptual photographer with a taste for
colour, trompe l’oeil, the industrial image and the snapshot; and Paolo Gioli (b. 1942),
who is primarily interested in experimenting with modern technology but is a debunker
of the photographic medium and ironic about its technicality.
Further reading
Entries A–Z 619
(1988) Italy: One Hundred Years of Photography, with introductory texts by S.Sontag and C.
Colombo, Florence: Alinari.
Zannier, I. (1979), in Venezia’79: La Fotografia, Milan: Electa.
— (1986) Storia della fotografia italiana (History of Italian Photography), Bari: Laterza (see
especially Chapter 6).
OLIVIA DAWSON
Piano, Renzo
b. 14 September 1937, Genoa
Architect, engineer, teacher and theoretician
Born into a family of builders, Piano has become the master of well-crafted, large-scale
‘organic’ structures, inspired by a constant search for lightness in both a physical and a
figurative sense. A deep fascination with harbours, ships, airports, airplanes and historical
centres returns insistently throughout his work, while a technological virtuosity forms his
personal signature. Piano’s contribution is substantial both in volume and significance,
and ranges from a restructuring of Potsdamer Platz in Berlin to Osaka airport, from a
Centre for Kanak culture in New Caledonia to apartment blocks in Sydney, Australia. His
buildings tend to expand their formal programme in response to their context thus making
larger social statements as, for example, in the Parisian multicultural centre Beaubourg,
designed with Rogers in 1971 and conceived as a factory for making culture while
presenting an ironic look at technology. He has been awarded numerous prizes and
awards for building excellence.
Further reading
Piano, R. (1997) Logbook, New York: The Monacelli Press (an excellent, updated
overview of Piano’s work presented by the architect himself, together with biographic
and bibliographic data).
GORDANA KOSTICH
Piazza Fontana
On 12 December 1969, in the wake of the student protests and worker revolts of 1968–9,
a bomb exploded in a bank in Piazza Fontana in Milan, killing 17 people and injuring 90.
The unprecedented act of violence inaugurated nearly two decades of political bombings,
murders and woundings. Blame for the bomb was immediately attributed to anarchists,
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