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Edible films and coatings from non-starch polysaccharides
355
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Lipid-based edible
films
and coatings
Jong Whan Rhim and Thomas
H.
Shellhammer
Introduction
...........................................................
362
Materials used in lipid-based edible films and coatings
...........................
363
Preparation
............................................................
366
Physical properties
.......................................................
369
Influence of the RH differentials
............................................
375
Applications
............................................................
376
Conclusions
...........................................................
380
References
.............................................................
380
introduction
Protective edible films and coatings have long been used in the food industry to pro-
tect the quality and extend the shelf life of foods. Most commonly, edible lipid and
shellac coatings have been used on fresh fruit and confections to improve appearance.
Edible films and coatings can also function as barriers to moisture, oxygen, flavor,
aroma, and oil, thus improving food quality and enhancing shelf life.
An
edible film
or coating may also provide physical protection for a food, reducing bruising and
breakage, and therefore improving food integrity. Sometimes the protective functions
of edible films and coatings may be enhanced by the addition of antioxidants or
antimicrobials. Edible coatings can also provide additional sensory attributes to
foods, including gloss, color, and a non-greasy or non-sticky surface.
Edible
films
and coatings are generally prepared using biological polymers such as
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and resins. Natural biopolymers have the advantage
over synthetic polymers in that they are biodegradable and renewable, as well as edi-
ble. Each group of materials has certain advantages and disadvantages. Protein and
polysaccharide films generally provide a good barrier against oxygen at low and inter-
mediate relative humidity, and have good mechanical properties, but their barrier against
water vapor is poor due to their hydrophilic nature (Guilbert,
1986;
Kester and Fennema,
1986;
Gennadios
et
al.,
1994).
In contrast, films prepared with lipid materials have
good water vapor barrier properties, but are usually opaque and relatively inflexible.
Innovations
in
Food Packaging
ISBN.
0-12-3
1
1632-5
Copyright
O
2005 Elsevier
Ltd
All
rights of reproduction
in
any
form reserved
Lipid-based edible films and coatings
:
The beneficial properties of some lipids, such as their reasonably good compatibil-
ity with other film-forming agents and their good barrier properties against water vapor
and other gases, make them desirable candidates for increased use as edible films and
coatings in foods (Greener and Fennema, 1992). Lipid compounds commonly used
for the preparation of lipid-based edible
films
and coatings include neutral lipids, fatty
acids, waxes, and resins (Kester and Fennema, 1986; Hernandez, 1994).
One way to achieve a better water vapor barrier is to produce a composite film
by adding hydrophobic components such as lipid and wax materials.
A
composite
hydrocolloid-lipid film or coating is particularly desirable, since it has acceptable
structural integrity imparted by the hydrocolloid materials and good water vapor bar-
rier properties contributed by the lipid materials (Greener and Fennema, 1989a).
The efficiency of the lipid materials in composite films and coatings depends on the
nature of the lipid used, in particular on its structure, chemical arrangement,
hydrophobicity, and physical state (e.g. solid or liquid), and on the lipid interactions
with the other components of the film, such as proteins and polysaccharides.
In
this chapter, the materials, preparation methods, characteristics, and applications
of lipid-based edible films and coatings are discussed.
Materials
used
in
lipid-based edible
films
and
coatings
A
very wide range of compounds is available for increasing the hydrophobicity of
lipid-based edible films and coatings. Hydrophobic substances potentially used
in
this
way include natural waxes (such as carnauba wax, candelilla wax, rice bran wax, and
beeswax); petroleum-based waxes (such as paraffin and polyethylene wax); petroleum-
based oils, mineral oils, and vegetable oils; and acetoglycerides and fatty acids. Resins
are also used to impart gloss to the commodity (Hagenmaier and Baker, 1994,1995;
Morillon
et
al.,
2002).
Among the hydrophobic materials, wax has been the most widely used for the pro-
tective coating of fresh commodities. 'Wax' is the collective term for a series of natural
or synthetically produced non-polar substances that normally possess properties such
as being kneadable at room temperature, brittle to solid, coarse to finely crystalline,
translucent to opaque, of relatively low viscosity even slightly above the melting point,
not tending to springiness, having consistency and solubility depending on the tem-
perature, and capable of being polished by slight pressure (Hamilton, 1995). Chemically,
wax is an ester of a long-chain aliphatic acid with a long-chain aliphatic alcohol.
Waxes are insoluble in bulk water, and do not spread to form a mono-layer on the sur-
face. Their hydrophobicity is high, and this is proven by their solubility in typical
organic solvents, such as hexane, chloroform, or benzene. These molecules either
have no polar constituents or possess a hydrophilic part so small or so buried in the
molecule that it cannot readily interact with water, thereby preventing the molecule
from spreading. That explains why waxes are the most efficient barriers to water vapor
transfer.
364
Innovations in Food Packaging
Animal and insect waxes
Beeswax, spermaceti, wool grease, lanolin
Vegetable waxes
Carnauba wax, candelilla wax, ouricouri
wax,
sugar cane wax, jojoba oil, baybenywax, Japan wax, rice
bran oil
Mineral waxes
Ozocerite, montan wax, paraffin waxes, microcrystalline waxes
Dnlyethylenec
Ficrher-Trnncrh
W~YPC
cvnrhptir PctPrc cvnth~rir amid~c rarbnwaxe-c
--
I
Beeswax
7-3 6
Spermaceti
2-2.5
Wool grease
7-1 5
Carnauba wax
2.9-9.7
Candelilla wax
12.7-1 8.1
Ouricouri
wax
9-20
Sugar cane wax
23-28
Jojoba oil
2 82 92 6.8-7.0 1.4650
Bayberry wax
3.52 2.93 208 44.8
Japan wax
6-20 4.5-1 2.5 206-237 45-53 0.8750-0.8770
Rice bran wax
2.1-7.3 11.2-19.4 56.9-104.4 75.3-79.9
Ozocerite
3
1-38 14-18 87-104 83-89 1.4670 1.0200-1.0300
Paraffin wax
63.6 1.4497
Microcrystalline wax
1.4450-1.4460 0.8900-0.9000
AV, acid value;
IN,
iodine number; SN, saponification number; MP, melting point in
"C;
SP, solidifying point in
"C;
RI,
refractive
~ndex;
EV,
ester value; SG, specific gravity.
I
Generally, waxes can be divided into naturally occurring waxes and synthetic
waxes, and the former group conventionally subdivided into animal, insect, vegetable,
and mineral waxes according to their origin, as shown in Table 21.1 (Hamilton, 1995).
Commercial waxes are characterized by a number of properties, including organolep-
tic (color, odor, and taste), thermal (melting and setting points, flash temperature),
physical (specific gravity, penetration, shrinkage), and chemical (acid value, ester
value, iodine number, acetyl number) properties. The characteristics of some com-
mercial waxes are summarized in Table 21.2 (Hamilton, 1995).
Triglycerides or neutral lipids are esters of fatty acids with glycerol. They have
increased polarity relative to waxes, are insoluble in water, but will spread at the inter-
face to form a stable mono-layer. The hydrophobicity of triglycerides depends on their
structure. Long-chain triglycerides are insoluble in water, whereas short-chain mole-
cules are partially water-soluble. Above a certain concentration, they form aggregates
similar to micelles. Fatty acids are also considered to be polar lipids, and are used pri-
marily as emulsifiers and dispersing agents. Table 21.3 lists the name of the most
important fatty acids used for preparation of edible films and coatings, along with