Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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thedegreethatsmalleralliesdoubtthattheirseniorpartnerwouldriskitsown

survivaltopreservetheirs,theyaredriventoseeksomeindependentmeansfor

defendingthemselves.Evenwhentheydocountontheseniorpartnertodefend

them,theyareallthemoretemptedtoconductindependentforeignpolicies

evenindefianceofitswishes.ItisprobablethatCharlesdeGaulle’sbold

challengetotheUnitedStatesinthe1960sreflectedmorehisconvictionthatthe

UnitedStateswouldhavenochoicebuttodefendFranceincaseofSovietattack

thanhisproclaimedfearthatwewouldnot.Similarly,thenewnationshave

provedshrewdlyadeptatplayingthesuperpowersagainsteachother,evenwhile

themilitarypredominanceofthesuperpowersisenormousandgrowing.



EverynewPresidentsoonlearnsthathefacestwoseeminglycontradictory

obligations.Hemustassembleadequatestrengthtoprotectthesecurityof

Americaandofitsalliesandfriends.Andhemustfa cetoo themoralnecessityof

avoidingnuclearwar.Ifheisperceivedotherwisehewillforfeitthedomestic

supportheneedsshouldaconfrontationproveunavoidable.Hemustboth

assemblepoweranddisciplineitsuse;hemustmaintainAmerica’sreadinessfor

bothdefenseandpeace.Hecandoneitherwithoutapublicthathasconfidence

inhispurposes.Beforehecanactasapracticalguide,thePresidentmust

establishhismoralleadership.



Theelusiveproblemofpeacewouldhavebeendifficultenoughinany

circumstances;inourtimeitiscompoundedbyideologicalconflict.Inperiods

heavilyinfluencedbyideology,politicalloyaltiesnolongercoincidewithnational

boundaries.Communistpartieseverywhereadheretoaphilosophythatasserts

universalvalidityandhistoricalinevitabilityandpayallegiancetoaforeignnation

ofteninconflictwiththeirown;manynewnationsaresweptbyanideology

whosecentraltenet,ifnotCommunism, ispowerfullyanti‐Westerninthename

ofanti‐imperialism;acrucialnewconflictisthestrugglebetweenmoderatesand

radicalsinthedevelopingworld.Insuchconditionsadomesticupheavalinany

countrycancauseamajorshiftininternationalalignments.Nationsbegintofeel

threatenednotonlybyforeignpoliciesbutalsoandperhapsespeciallyby

domestictransformations.AliberalizedCommunistregimeinPrague,whichinno

waychallengedSovietpreeminenceinforeignpolicy,causedtheSovietUnionin

1968toinvaderatherthanriskthecontagionofideasthatitfearedcouldspread

elsewhereinitsempire.TenyearslatertheupheavalinIranshookstability

throughouttheMiddleEast.



Andalltheseconfrontationsanduncertaintieswerebeingplayedoutfor

thefirsttimeonaglobalscale.Throughouthistorythevariouscontinents had

existedinrelativeisolation.AslateastheoutbreakoftheSecondWorldWar,the

crucialdecisionsofworldpoliticsweretakeninafewEuropeancapitals.The

postwarperiodwasthefirstinwhichallthecontinentsinteracted.In1945,the

worldcommunitycomprisedfifty‐onenations;by1968ithadmorethandoubled,

tonearlyonehundredthirty.Moderncommunicationstransmittednewsand

ideasinstantaneously.Eventsthatusedtobelocal—wars,rivalries,scandals,

domesticupheavals,naturaltragedies—suddenlybegantoassumeglobal

significance.WhentheNixonAdministrationenteredofficealltheelementsof

internationalrelationswereinfluxsimultaneously.



Ontheonehandtheindustrialdemocracieshadgainedineconomicwell‐

beingandpoliticalvitality.Inevitablythisproducedachallengetoourprevious

predominanceinouralliances.MostAmericanleaderstendedtolaytheblameon

theawesome,enigmaticCharlesdeGaulle.Ididnotsharetheconventionalview

ofdeGaulle.Isawhimnot asthecauseofcurrentdifficultiesanddoubtsbutas

thesymptomofdeep‐seatedstructuralchangesintheAtlanticrelationship.It

wasnotnaturalthatthemajordecisionsaffectingthedestinyofcountriessorich

intraditions,nationalpride,andeconomicstrengthasWesternEuropeandJapan

shouldbemadethousandsofmilesaway.Ihadurgedforye arsthatitwasinthe

Americannationalinteresttoencourageasharingofresponsibilities.IftheUnited

Statesinsistedonbeingthetrusteeofallthenon‐Communistareaswewould

exhaustourselvespsychologicallylongbeforewedidsophysically.Aworldof

morecentersofdecision,Ibelieved,wasfullycompatiblewithourinterestsas

wellasourideals.ThisiswhyIopposedtheeffortsoftheKennedyandJohnson

administrationstoaborttheFrenchandifpossibleeventheBritishnuclear

programs,andWashington’stendencyinthe1960stoturnconsultationintothe

exegesisofAmericanprescriptions.



Atthesametime,theso‐calledThirdWorldofdevelopingnationstested

ourintellectualandpoliticalunderstanding.OurexperiencesoftheNewDealand

theMarshallPlanwerenotentirelyrelevanttopromotingeconomicprogressand

nation‐buildingincountrieswithnopolitical traditionandnomiddleclassof

managersandadministrators.Instead,leaderswereoftenoverwhelmedbythe

taskofestablishingcohesion.Weweredealingnotwithmatureeconomiesbut

withsocietiestakingthewrenchingfirststepstowardmodernization.Itbecame

apparentthatnation‐buildingdependedcruciallyontheabilitytoestablish

politicalauthority.Economicaid,byacceleratingtheerosionofthetraditional

(frequentlyfeudal)order,oftenmadepoliticalstabilityevenhardertoachieve.By

oneoftheironiesofhistory,Marxismhasprovedattractivetodevelopingnations

notbecauseoftheeconomictheoryonwhichitpridesitselfbutbecauseithas

suppliedananswertotheproblemofpoliticallegitimacyandauthority—a 

formulaforsocialmobilization,ajustificationforpoliticalpower,a meansof

harnessingresentmentsagainstWesternculturalandpoliticaldominanceasa

methodoffosteringunity.Democracyhaslessappeal,not becauseoftheWest’s

sinsbutbecauseleadersinmostdevelopingcountriesdidnotundergotherisksof

theanticolonialstruggleinordertomakethemselvesdispensable.Byanhistorical

joke,amaterialistphilosophythathassolvednocountry’seconomic problems

hasspreadbecauseofitsmoralclaims,whiletheWest,professinganidealistic

philosophy,hasbemuseditselfwitheconomicandtechnicalremedieslargely

irrelevanttotheunderlyingpoliticalandspiritualproblem.



ThusthenewAdministrationconfrontedaworldofturbulenceand

complexity,whichwouldrequireofusqualit iesthathadnoprecedentin

Americanexperience.Simultaneouslywehadtoendawar,manageaglobal

rivalrywiththeSovietUnionintheshadowofnuclearweapons,reinvigorateour

alliancewiththeindustrialdemocracies,andintegratethenewnationsintoanew

worldequilibriumthatwouldlast onlyifitwascompatiblewiththeaspirationof

allnations.Wehadtoturntonewtasksofconstructionevenwhilewehad

learnedthelimitsofourcapacities.Wehadtofindwithinourselvesthemoral

staminatoperseverewhileoursocietywasassailedbydoubt.



InthelateeighteenthcenturythephilosopherImmanuelKant,inhisessay

PerpetualPeace,hadwrittenthatworldpeacewasinevitable ;itwouldcome

abouteitherbecauseallnationssharedthesamesenseofjusticeorbecauseofa

cycleofwarsofeverincreasingviolencethatwouldteachmenthefutilityof

conflict.OurperiodwasgivingnewmeaningtoKant’sprediction.Whennations

areabletoinflicttensofmillionsofcasualtiesinamatterofhours,peacehas

becomeamoralimperative.Nooneenteringofficecouldevadethisfundamental

responsibility.Buttherootdilemmaofourtimeisthatifthequestforpeaceturns

intothesoleobjectiveofpolicy,thefearofwarbecomesaweaponinthehands

ofthemostruthless;itproducesmoraldisarmament.Howtostriveforboth

peaceandjustice,foranendofwarthatdoesnotleadtotyranny,fora

commitmenttojusticethatdoesnotproducecataclysm—tofindthisbalanceis

theperpetualtaskofthestatesmaninthenuclearage.



These,then,weretheperceptionsaboutwhichIhadthoughtandwritten

muchasaprofessor.Theywouldsoonbetestedbyevents.Foroncetheoathof

officehasbeentakenbyanewPresident,thereisnolongertimeforcalm 

reflection.Thepolicymakeristhenlikeamanonatightrope;hecanavoida

precipitousdroponlybymovingforward.



<<Contents>>

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****

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PARTTWO



1969:TheStart

OftheJourney

IV



EuropeanJourney



NixonVisitsEurope



ichardNixonleftonhisfirstforeigntripasPresidentonFebruary23,1969,

fromAndrewsAirForceBasenearWashington.ItwasarainySunday

morning.Asteadydrizzlesoakedthecrowdthathadtraveledthehalfhour

fromdowntowntobidhimGodspeed.TheCabinetwasinattendance,aswasthe

Congressionalleadershipfrombothsidesoftheaisle.Agaggleofphotographers

jockeyedforpositionbehindasteelbarricade.

R



Itwasstillthehoneymoonperiod,thefirsttimeinNixon’slifethathe

enjoyedbroadsympathyandpopularsupport.Hereveledinitlikeamanwhohas

reachedanoasisaftertraversinganinhospitabledesert.Hewastooshrewdnot

tonoticetheironyofbeingpraisedforqualitiesofconciliationcontrarytothe

recordofhisentirepubliclife.Hebetterthananyoneknewthattoday’sacclaim

canturnintotomorrow’svilification.Butfornowhebaskedinanunaccustomed

approbation.



Nixonbanteredbrieflyanduneasilywiththenotablesontheairport

tarmac,thenstrodetothemicrophonetomakehisdeparturestatement.Itwasa

characteristicNixonperformance.Whathesaidaboutforeignpolicywassensitive

andmodest.HewasgoingtoEuropetoconsultwithfriends.Thismeant“real”

consultationbecause“weseeknotonlytheirsupportbuttheiradvice”inmany

partsoftheworld—aslapatthedeteriorationofAlliancerelationsunderhis

predecessorswhichhehadcriticizedinhiscampaign.Buttherestofhisremarks

hadthatcuriousdownbeatqualitywithwhichhemanagedsooftentochill

enthusiasmandgoodwill.Hehadbeenfrettingforweeksthattheremightbe

demonstrationsagainsthimthat,whenshownontelevision,mightweakenhis

domesticposition.Nixonheldtheviewthathecouldpullthestingofan

unfavorabledevelopmentbypreempting it.Ifhemadeclearthatheexpected

difficulty,somehow thedamagewouldbeeased.Occasionally,hewasright.More

often,thepredictionsoftroubleoroppositiononlymadehimappeardefensiveif

theyprovedfalseor tohavecourteddisasteriftheywereborneout.This

departurewasoneofthoseoccasions.Hechosetodevoteoverhalfofhisbrief

statementtothepossibilityofhostiledemonstrators;hedisparagedthemby

sayingthattheyrepresentedonlyasmallfractionofthepublic.Theywouldnot

deterhimfromhisquestforpeace.Partlypro vocative,oddlyvulnerable,the

statementwasnotwellcalculatedtoinspire,butitaccuratelyreflectedthe

complexitiesofthenotinconsiderablemanwhowastoshapethedestinyofour

countryforaturbulentfiveandahalfyears.



Ididnotheartheendofhisstatementbecausebeforehehadfinished,

advancemenhadbundledmeandothermembersofthepartyaboardthe

Presidentialaircraft,AirForceOne.Thereweretworeasonsforthispr ocedure,

whichwasfollowedoneveryPresidentialtrip.Theplannerswantedtheplaneto

leavethesecondthedoorhadclosedbehindthePresident.Moreimportant,they

weredeterminedthatwhenNixonstoo dontheramptowavegoodbye tothe

crowdforthebenefitofthephotographers,thepicturewouldshownooneelse.



AllthisandmuchmorewastheworkonthistripofJohnEhrlichmanand

theadvancemen—socalledbecauseasmallpartyofthemdescendsonevery

Presidentialstopdaysbeforehisarrivaltoplanhiseverymove.Ehrlichmanhad

beenNixon’schiefadvancemanduringthe1968campaign.HehadjoinedNixon’s

staffin1962whentheprospectsforsuccesswereminimalandonlyaconsuming

dedicationcouldsustaintheirquixoticquest.



NoonecouldprosperaroundNixonwithoutaffectinganairoftoughness;

whatstartedasanexpedientposecould,ifstagedlongenough,becomeawayof

life.IdidnotthinkofEhrlichmanasanaturallytoughman;hewas,infact,

predisposedtobegentle.Hehadanattractivefamilywhomheadored.Hewould

havemostlikedto shapeaforward‐lookingdomesticprogram,ataskthathewas

eventuallygiven.Buthewasambitious.Hewanted,aboveall,toberecognizedas

aleadingfigureintheWhiteHouse.Preciselybecauseitdidnotcome

spontaneously,hecouldbeextraordinarilyaggressiveandevenunpleasantinthe

pursuitofthatgoal.Herespectedme;andheenviedmebecausehethought—

notwronglyfromhispointofview—thatIskimmedthecreamofthegloriesof

powerwhilehehadtosufferthecontinuingsocialostracismthatresultedfrom

themutualdistrustoftheoldNixonacolytesandtheWashingtonEstablishment.

Heseizedseveralopportunitiestoharassme,oftenbyconductinginvestigations

ofleaksofinformationinamannerdesignedtodemonstratemystaff’s

unreliability.Buthealsowasoftenveryhelpfulandencouraging.Mostofthetime

ourrelationswerecordial.Inadifferentenvironmenthemighthaveperformeda

greatserviceforhiscountry.IntheNixonWhiteHousehewasintimedestroyed

bythecultofthetoughguyandthecorrosivesiegementalitythathelpedtobring

ontheverynightmaresitfearedmost.Ehrlichmanwasafriendandcompetitorof

H.R.(Bob)Haldeman—theirrelationshipimprovedasEhrlichmanrosetopower

onthesubstantivesideofWhiteHouseactivity,inwhichHaldemanwas

aggressivelyuninterested.Butonthistriptherewasconsiderabletension,for

Haldemanwasdeterminedtogettheadvancemenentirelyunderhiscontrol.He

succeeded.ItwasthelasttripEhrlichmanadvanced.Thereafter,this

responsibilitywastakenoverbyDwightChapin,aHaldemanlieutenant.



Ehrlichmanhadhishandsfull,foraPresidentialtripisamajorlogistical

undertaking.Iunderstoodsolittleofthisforseveralyearsthatwhen,duringmy

secrettriptoPekinginJuly1971,ChouEn‐laiaskedmehowlargeNixon’sparty

wouldbe,Iguessedataboutfifty.Itwasademonstrationofignorancethat

evokedcondescendingpityfromHaldeman.TheSecretServiceagentsalonewho

accompanythePresidentexceedthatnumber.Thentherearetheimmediate

staff,andsecretariesandbaggagehandlers,andtheplatoonsofcommunicators,

sincewhereverthePresidenttravelsheandhisstaffmustbeabletoreachany

partoftheworldinstantaneouslybyteletypeortelephone.APresidentcannot

travel,moreover,withoutthemanyassistantsanddepartmentalrepresentatives

forwhompresenceonaPresidentialtripisacovetedstatussymbol,evenwhen

theyparticipateinnomeetingsandscarcelyifatallseethePresident.Andthe

travelingpressfrequentlynumbersoverthreehundred.Intotal,atypical

Presidentialpartyisbetweensixhundredandeighthundredpeople.



Tomovethiswholeentouragesmoothlyonafast‐pacedtripisnosmall

feat.Thepressbyitselfisamajorchallenge.TheymustcoverboththePresident’s

arrivalsandhisdepartures.Tosolvethisproblem,thepressplanesusuallytake

offafterAirForceOne(sotheycanattendthedeparture)butthenovertakeitin

flightandlandfirst(sotheycancoverthearrival).Inadditio n, asmallpresspool

offourtosixfliesonAirForceOne.Thejournalistsmustbepresentatall

importanteventsyetstillhaveopportunitytowriteandfiletheirstories.



Theslightlybaff ledofficialpartyisatthecenterofthiswondrous

undertaking.Eachisgivenalittlebookoutliningeveryeventandevery

movement,timedliterallytotheminute,togetherwithchartsshowingwhere

everyoneistostandduringceremonies,sleepingaccommodations,participation

inmeetings,andothervitalinformation.Slavishobedienceistheonlysafecourse,

thoughittaxesone’sstrengthandsometimessanity.WhenIwasAssistanttothe

President,apositionthatdespiteitsgreatpowerislowinprotocolrank,Iwas

seatedfarbelowthesalt;Ispentmuchtimecalculatingthedistanceseparating

mefromthePresidentialpersonandtheoddsonmyreachingmycarbeforethe

Presidentiallimousinepulledout.Atasplendidformaldinnerintheenormous

diningroomofMadrid’sRoyalPalace,anelegantSpanishladyseatednexttome

said:“Iwouldgiveanythingtoknowwhatabrilliantmanlikeyouisthinking.”She

musthavewonderedabouttheemotionalstabilityofseniorAmerican

policymakerswhenIreplied:“Frankly,Iamclose topanicthatIwillmissmy

motorcade.”



TheEuropeanjourneywasmyfirstintroductiontotheseritesof

Presidentialpassageandtheanticsoftheadvancemen:theywereclean‐cut,

efficient,anddisciplinedindividualsHaldemanhadproudlypickedfrom

advertisingagenciesandjuniorexecutivepositions.Some workedfull‐timeas

advancemen;somewerevoluntee rswhosemainemploymentwasintheprivate

sector.Whattheylackedinidealsandbackgroundtheymadeupinassiduity.

Lateritwouldbecomeclearhowlittlewasthecommitmenttothefutureofsuch

peoplewithoutapast.Thosewhoseprimaryloyaltyistotheirownadva ncement

havenoballastwhentheircareersareinjeopardy.DuringtheWatergateperiod

thisproducedtheunedifyingspectacleofarushforthelifeboatswitheachlittle

caesarseekingsafetybypushinghisbloodbrothersovertheside.



In1969,however,Watergatewasinfinitelyremote.Theadvanceteamwas

atthepeakoftheirself‐confidence,honedbypoliticalcampaignstoarazoredge.

TheyhadhaditdrilledintothemthattheironlyobligationwastothePresident. 

Sinceduringacampaignthehostsateachdailystopwereleftbehind,

considerationforthefeelingsofthesedispensablestrangerswasnotpartoftheir

charter.Theirsoleresponsibilitywastomakecertainthateverythingran

smoothlyforNixon,whomustneverfacetheunexpectedcontingencieshehated

somuch.Anditwastheirjobtoarrangetheextendedrestperiods—shownas

“stafftime”inthepressreleases—thatheneededtomaintainhisconcentration

andpreparehimselfforimportantface‐to‐faceencounters.Aboveall,the

advanceteamhelditselfresponsibleforensuringthatNixonwasseenbyothers

onlyinthemostfavorablelight.Thissometimesledtoabsurdities.OnaStatevisit

toOttawain1972,anadvancemandecidedthatthetanfurnitureinPierre

Trudeau’sofficewouldnotflatterNixonontelevisionandtookituponhimselfto 

redecoratethePrimeMinister’sprivateofficewithblue‐coveredsofas.Hewas

stoppedatthelastminutebyanincredulousassociateofTrudeaualmost

incoherentwithrage.



OntheEuropeantrip,theadvancemen’sfirstexposuretotheworldof

diplomacy,theysolvedtheirproblemsbyactingasiftheywererunningapolitical

stopoverinDesMoines.Theypaidnoattentionwhatsoevertoourambassadors,

manyofwhomtheydistrustedaslame‐duckDemocraticholdovers,andonly

minimumheedtothesovereigngovernmentsthatwereourhosts.When

Ehrlichmansoughttoprescribeaguestlistforadinnerat10DowningStreet,

DavidBruce,ourAmbassadorinLondon,whohadseentoomuchina

distinguisheddiplomaticcareertobeintimidatedbyanewAdministration,

cabled:“SurelytheabsurdityoftellingtheBritishPrimeMinisterwhomhecan

invitetohisownhomefordinnerrequiresnoexplanation.”Otheradvancemenin

Paris,surveyingtheresidenceofourAmbassadorthereinpreparationforthe

President’sdinnerfordeGaulle,gaverisetofurtherpalpitations.Theynoticed

somephotographsofJohnKennedy.Specialhigh‐leveldispensation wasrequired

beforeAmbassadorSargentShriver—marriedtoPresidentKennedy’ssister

Eunice—waspermittedtokeepthepicturesofhisbrother‐in‐lawonvisible

display.Buttheseoccasionalinanitiesaside,theadvancemendidwellwiththe

logistics—sevenstopsinsevendayswithoutahitch—andeverythingclickedinto

placeinaremarkablywell‐plannedexercise.



OnceaboardAirForceOne,Nixonturnedassiduouslytohisbriefingpapers,

whichwereextraordinaryinrangeanddetail.Speeches,ofcourse,werealready

drafted.Nomatterwhatthepretense,noPresidenthasthetimetodrafthisown

speeches.Nixon’sforeignpolicyspeechesallhadthesameorigin:adetailed

outlinepreparedbytheNSCstaffundermysupervision,whichNixonwould

reviewandperhapsalterabitbeforeassigningtoaspeechwriter.Whenhehada

vitalspeechtomakehemighthimselfrewriteextensively,especiallyatthe

beginningandend,withparticularattentiontoanypoliticalimplications.Ifhe

thoughtIwouldapprovetherhetoricalchanges,Imightseethefinaltext,butnot