Layman D. Biology Demystified: A Self-Teaching Guide

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

ACOELOMATES: NO MAIN BODY CAVITY

The previous section told us that in all animals except sponges, there is an

archenteron present in the embryo. This archenteron is a hollow tube essen-

tially representing the beginning structure of the digestive tract. All animals

must have such a digestive tract, because they are heterotrophs consuming

food which provides them with needed energy. Since metabolism is never

100% eﬃcient, some of the ingested food matter is excreted through the

anus (AY-nus) as feces.

A further way of classifying the bilateral invertebrates can now be con-

sidered. It is the answer to the following question: ‘‘Does the animal’s body

contain a coelom (SEE-loam) – central body ‘‘cavity’’ – around its archenter-

eon (digestive tract), or not?’’

The additional way of classifying animals thus becomes one of distinguish-

ing the coelomates (SEE-luh-mates) from the acoelomates (ay-SEE-luh-

mates). The coelomates, quite obviously, are those bilateral invertebrates

whose bodies contain a coelom (central cavity), whereas the acoelomates

have no central body cavity.

The distinction becomes clear when one examines Figure 10.4. The acoe-

lomates are generally considered the more primitive or most ancient organ-

isms (according to the Fossil Record). Representative of the acoelomates are

the planaria (plah-NAIR-ee-uh). The planaria are free-swimming ﬂatworms

that have a solid body (containing no coelom around their digestive tube).

The planaria are carnivores. They catch and eat smaller animals, and feed on

dead organisms in the water. The planaria have amazing powers of regenera-

tion. This means that they are able to re-grow large portions of their bodies

when they are cut oﬀ and removed. This trait has made them a valuable

research tool for biologists seeking to learn how to promote regeneration

of lost or damaged human body parts. [Study suggestion: Compare the

name planaria with similar words like plantar and plaintain (Chapter 10).

From a look at Figure 10.4 (A), after what speciﬁc characteristic is the

planaria worm named?]

Midway between the acoelomates and the coelomates is a very large group

of invertebrates called the pseudocoelomates (SOO-doh-see-luh-mates). This

group is so large because it contains over 90,000 known species of nematodes

(NEM-ah-toads). Nematodes are slender, ‘‘thread’’ (nemat)-‘‘shaped’’ (-ode)

worms. The nematodes (threadworms) are alternately called the roundworms.

But their bodies tend to be narrow and cylinder-shaped, and they are often

tapered at either end (Figure 10.4, B).

The nematodes (roundworms, threadworms) are classiﬁed as pseudocoe-

lomates because their bodies contain a ‘‘false’’ (pseudo-) ‘‘cavity’’ (coelom).

CHAPTER 10 Invertebrates 167

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 167 1-388

4, Web

These slender worms have a complete digestive tube, which extends from the

mouth all the way to the anus. Their muscles run lengthwise through their

entire bodies, which are nonsegmented (not divided into small segments). But

there is no ‘‘true’’ coelom (cavity with an actual lining of mesoderm) between

the muscles and the digestive tube. There is, instead, a pseudocoelom cavity

that is ﬁlled with ﬂuid, but is not lined with mesoderm.

Finally, we turn to the coelomates. The coelomates are commonly repre-

sented by the annelids (AN-eh-lids) – the worms with many ‘‘little rings’’ of

muscles encircling their bodies. The most familiar annelid is the common

earthworm (Figure 10.4, C). The earthworm is considered a segmented

worm, due to the division of its body into numerous ring-like segments.

The ﬂuid-ﬁlled space surrounding its digestive tract is a true coelom, because

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 168 1-388

PART 3 Five Kingdoms of Life, plus Viruses

168

Fig. 10.4 No body cavity, ‘‘false’’ body cavity, or ‘‘true’’ body cavity?

it is lined by cells from the mesoderm. Earthworms are probably the most

frequently studied of all coelomates in introductory biology classes. But

human beings, like earthworms, are also coelomates! In both annelids

(such as earthworms) and humans, the ﬂuid within the coelom acts as a

valuable shock absorber, cushioning the internal organs from blows hitting

the outer body surface. It also moistens and lubricates them, reducing their

friction and rubbing during body movements.

The Mollusks: ‘‘Clam Up, Would ya’?’’

Closely related to the segmented worms is another group of coelomates, the

mollusks (MAHL-usks). This phylum of mollusks consists of a huge number

of more than 100,000 diﬀerent species of invertebrates with ‘‘soft bodies’’

(mollusc) that are nonsegmented. Mollusks include clams, snails, oysters,

squids, and octopuses. ‘‘What could such more-or-less round-shaped organ-

isms without segments possibly have in common with the segmented annelid

worms?’’ you might well ask. The answer is that both annelids and mollusks

probably have a common ancestor in the Fossil Record, and they were the

ﬁrst two groups of animals to develop a true ﬂuid-ﬁlled coelom cavity, lined

with mesoderm cells.

BASIC BODY PLAN OF THE MOLLUSKS

Because they have a soft body, many kinds of mollusks are protected by a

rock-hard, calcium-rich shell. Those early mollusks who developed this adap-

tation would obviously have enjoyed a much greater protection from hungry

predators. Squids and octopuses have either a much-reduced shell, which is

mostly internal, or they have lost their shells entirely.

Despite their obvious diﬀerences in degree of protection by shells, the

mollusks all share a common basic body plan. The basic plan is shown in

Figure 10.5. The three main parts of any mollusk are the mantle, visceral

(VIH-sir-al) mass, and foot. The mantle is a ‘‘little cloak’’ or covering on the

back of the mollusk. The covering tissue within the mantle produces the hard

shell in many species. And since it is on the back or superior surface of the

mollusk, the mantle functions in respiration, exchanging gases with the sur-

rounding air or water. In hundreds of mollusk species, there is a mantle cavity

also present below the mantle itself. The mantle cavity contains, in turn, a set

of gills. Since the mantle is hardened by an additional shell, it has a reduced

CHAPTER 10 Invertebrates 169

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 169 1-388

surface area available for diﬀusion of oxygen (O

) into the blood, and diﬀu-

sion of carbon dioxide (CO

) out. This reduced surface area available for

respiration is compensated for by the gills, which assist with this critical job.

The visceral mass is the main soft body of the mollusk, which contains the

major viscera (VIH-ser-ah) or ‘‘guts’’ (internal organs). The coelom cavity is

also found within the visceral mass. It holds the heart of the organism. The

foot of the mollusk is the inferior portion of the visceral mass, which, some-

what like a human foot, is large and ﬂeshy and ﬂat. The foot pushes against

the ground or sea bottom, propelling the mollusk forward.

In addition to their basic body plan, many species of mollusks are classi-

ﬁed as bivalves (BUY-valves). This is because they have ‘‘two’’ (bi) shells

hinged tightly together, like a ‘‘valve.’’ This double-valve, when opened,

gives the organisms bilateral symmetry. Bivalves include such well-known

invertebrates as the clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops.

Echinoderms: ‘‘Such A Prickly Skin May Make

You A Star!’’

Bivalves have bilateral (mirror-image) symmetry, while adult starﬁsh possess

radial symmetry. Various species of starﬁsh, along with the sea urchins (UR-

chins), belong to a phylum of invertebrates called the Echinoderms (ih-KY-

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 170 1-388

PART 3 Five Kingdoms of Life, plus Viruses

170

Fig. 10.5 Basic body plan of the mollusks.

nuh-derms). The Echinoderms are a group of small sea animals covered by a

spiny ‘‘skin’’ (derm) that forms a hard protective shell. This phylum gets its

name from the numerous spines on the surface of the animals, which give

them the appearance of a sea-dwelling ‘‘hedgehog’’ (Echino-). The sea urch-

ins, in particular, look much like real ‘‘hedgehogs’’ (urchins)! The sea urchins

(Figure 10.6, A) are a group of small, round Echinoderms with hard shells

consisting of moveable, calcium-hardened spines. Like a hedgehog, the ani-

mal curls up and projects its sharp spines as a protective reaction when it is

being attacked by a hungry predator.

The starﬁsh (not being ﬁsh), are more accurately called sea stars. Like the

sea urchins, the sea stars possess radial symmetry in their adult form.

Interestingly enough, however, all the Echinoderms grow into radially sym-

metrical adults from larvae (LAR-vee) or immature ‘‘ghosts’’ (larva) that are

CHAPTER 10 Invertebrates 171

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 171 1-388

5, Web

Fig. 10.6 The prickly Echinoderms.

bilateral and free-swimming. The conversion of immature larvae with bilat-

eral symmetry into mature Echinoderm adults with radial symmetry appar-

ently reﬂects an adaptation to a more-or-less stationary and slow-moving

existence on the ocean ﬂoor.

The sea star consists of a central body, with ﬁve arms radiating out like

spokes from the hub of a wheel (Figure 10.6, B). Its inferior mouth opens into

a digestive tract. Besides its prickly skin, the sea star shows another feature

unique to the Echinoderms: a water vascular (VAS-kyoo-lar) system. This

vascular system is contained within the animal’s coelom (main body cavity).

A small sieve plate, present on the superior surface of the animal, ﬁlters

seawater (like a sieve with holes) just before it enters the sea star and ﬂows

down a short tube. The tube connects to a central ring canal, and from there

into individual radial canals, which circulate the ﬁltered water into each

prickly arm.

Besides acting as a circulatory system for nutrients and waste products,

the water vascular system serves as a hydrostatic (HIGH-druh-stat-ik)

skeleton. The ‘‘water’’ (hydro-) within the vascular canals provides a

‘‘steady’’ (static) pressure. This hydrostatic pressure allows the sea star to

use the suckers on its hundreds of tube feet to push down and slowly drag

its prickly body across the ocean ﬂoor. The water-driven pressure is even

great enough to allow the star to raise its arms and grasp prey, such as

sponges, mollusks, and oysters.

Invertebrates Respond to ‘‘Breaking

Symmetry’’ of Their Body Form

We have talked about the concept of Biological Order, as contrasted with

Biological Disorder, as a consistent theme in this book. Symmetry, a rough

balance in the shape and size of the body parts within an organism, is an

important example of one kind of Biological Order. Thus, the bilateral sym-

metry of planaria worms, for example, as well as the radial symmetry of adult

sea stars, are likewise models of biological balance and order.

What happens, then, when part of a planaria ﬂatworm is cut oﬀ ? Or what

happens when one of the arms of a sea star is clipped? This type of distur-

bance is often called symmetry-breaking. By breaking of symmetry, it is

meant that the rough balance between the parts of an organism has been

disturbed. In humans, for example, amputating, say, the left leg below the

knee, creates a severe symmetry-breaking. Because the left leg is now signiﬁ-

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 172 1-388

PART 3 Five Kingdoms of Life, plus Viruses

172

5, Order

1, Disorder

cantly shorter than the right leg, the normal bilateral symmetry of the human

body has largely been broken. Without an artiﬁcial limb to correct this

imbalance, the person’s ability to walk or even stand upright is severely

compromised.

In sea stars and planaria ﬂatworms, however, being relatively primitive

invertebrates gives them certain advantages whenever their body symmetry is

broken. Soon after a sea star loses an arm, for instance, the resulting break-

ing of its radial symmetry throws the animal into a state of severe imbalance

as it tries to crawl over the ocean ﬂoor. This sudden introduction of great

Biological Disorder strongly stimulates the cells within the stump of the

missing arm to extensively grow and divide by mitosis. Due to the sea star’s

amazing powers of regeneration, another arm soon grows to replace the one

that was torn oﬀ. Unlike humans and other vertebrates, invertebrates like the

sea star have no need for crutches!

Quiz

Refer to the text in this chapter if necessary. A good score is at least 8 correct

answers out of these 10 questions. The answers are found in the back of this

book.

1. The eumetazoans:

(a) Seldom contain tissues within their bodies

(b) Are usually incapable of mitosis

(d) Are the main group of vertebrate organisms

2. Symmetry:

(a) Is a characteristic only found in the invertebrates

(b) Provides an important example of Biological Disorder

either side of some dividing line

(d) Is frequently greatly reduced or absent in the larvae of many

organisms

3. Mirror-image symmetry:

(a) Suggests bilateral symmetry between the right and left sides of a

particular organism

(b) Essentially explains the body form of most adult jellyﬁsh

CHAPTER 10 Invertebrates 173

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 173 1-388

(d) Involves the tricky business of organisms trying to deceive

predators, by casting their reﬂections as ‘‘mirrors’’

4. By ‘‘cephalization’’ in an animal, it is meant that:

(a) The creature has only superior and inferior surfaces

(b) The features of a radiolarian are being expressed

(d) There is a deﬁnite head end to its body, where the main collection

of sensory organs are located

5. Germ layers:

(a) Represent ‘‘germs’’ (bacteria) that contaminate otherwise healthy

cell ‘‘layers’’

(b) Are rarely observed in either vertebrate or invertebrate embryos

tissues and organs eventually develop

(d) Occur as ﬂat sheets of damaged cells in invertebrate adults

6. The inner skin of the embryo, from which the lining of the intestine and

other major cavities develops:

(a) Gastrula

(b) Blastocele

(d) Endoderm

7. Coelomates:

(a) Are the only type of organisms containing an archenteron

(b) Are the only types of organisms having a central cavity

surrounding their archenteron

(d) Have solid bodies without internal cavities

8. The nematodes:

(a) Have nonsegmented bodies, complete digestive tracts, but a

pseudocoelom rather than a true coelom

(b) Include the tapeworms, which have both coeloms and true body

tissues

whatsoever

(d) Is a small group of only a few dozen known species

9. The Echinoderms:

(a) Seldom occur outside of dense forested environments

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 174 1-388

PART 3 Five Kingdoms of Life, plus Viruses

174

(b) Being so soft-bodied, have left behind virtually no traces within the

ancient Fossil Record

(d) Can be nicknamed as the ‘‘hedgehogs’’ of the Sea!

10. Which of the following would be a good example of ‘‘breaking

symmetry’’ of a sea urchin?

(a) Slicing the animal exactly in half along its body midline

(b) Pulling out every single one of the animal’s spines

(d) Pulling out every other spine, all over the surface of the urchin’s

body

The Giraﬀe ORDER TABLE for Chapter 10

(Key Text Facts About Biological Order Within An Organism)

1. ____________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________

The Dead Giraﬀe DISORDER TABLE for Chapter 10

(Key Text Facts About Biological Disorder Within An Organism)

1. ____________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 10 Invertebrates 175

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 175 1-388

The Spider Web ORDER TABLE for Chapter 10

(Key Text Facts About Biological Order Beyond The Individual

Organism)

1. ____________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________

[13:25 13/6/03 N:/4058 LAYMAN.751/4058-Alltext.3d] Ref: 4058 Layman: Biology Demystified All-text Page: 176 1-388

PART 3 Five Kingdoms of Life, plus Viruses

176