Lin S.D. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual
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Step 2. Determine 10-day HA (as well as 1-day HA)
For a 10-kg child:
where 6/7 ⫽ expansion of 6 d/week treatment in the study
to 7 d/week to represent daily exposure
Others ⫽ as previous examples
Note: This HA is equivalent to 2.6 mg/d or 0.26 mg/kg ⋅ d.
Step 3. Determine the longer-term HA
Using Eq. (5.13),
for a child
for an adult
Note: This HA is equivalent to 92 g/d or 1.3 g/kg ⋅ d.
Step 4. Determine the lifetime HA
Because vinyl chloride is classified as a human carcinogen (Group A of US
EPA, Group 1 of International Agency for Research on Cancer), a lifetime HA
is not recommended.
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5 0.046 mg/L or 46 g/L
Longer-term HA 5
s0.13 mg/kg
#
dds70 kgd
s100d s2 L/dd
5 0.013 mg/L or 13 g/kg
#
d
Longer-term HA 5
s0.13 mg/kg
#
dds10 kgd
s100d s1L/dd
5 2.6 mg/L or 2600 g/L
5
s30 mg/kg
#
dds6/7ds10 kgd
s100d s1 L/dd
Ten-day HA 5
sNOAELd s6/7d sBWd
sUFd sWCd
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530 Chapter 5
Chapter
6
Wastewater Engineering
531
1 What Is Wastewater? 533
2 Characteristics of Wastewater 533
2.1 Physical properties of wastewater 533
2.2 Chemical constituents of wastewater 537
2.3 Biological characteristics of wastewater 541
3 Sewer Systems 542
3.1 Separated sewer system 542
3.2 Combined sewers 543
4 Quantity of Wastewater 545
4.1 Design flow rates 547
5 Urban Stormwater Management 549
5.1 Urban drainage systems 550
6 Design of Storm Drainage Systems 551
7 Precipitation and Runoff 551
7.1 Rainfall intensity 552
7.2 Time of concentration 554
7.3 Estimation of runoff 555
8 Stormwater Quality 556
8.1 National Urban Runoff Program 556
8.2 Event mean concentration 556
8.3 Street and road loading rate 559
8.4 Runoff models 560
9 Sewer Hydraulics 562
10 Sewer Appurtenances 562
10.1 Street inlets 562
10.2 Manholes 564
10.3 Inverted siphons (depressed sewers) 565
11 Pumping Stations 568
12 Sewer Construction 572
12.1 Loads and buried sewers 572
13 Wastewater Treatment Systems 574
13.1 Preliminary treatment systems 575
13.2 Primary treatment systems 576
13.3 Secondary treatment systems 577
13.4 Advanced treatment systems 578
13.5 Compliance with standards 580
Copyright © 2007, 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.
14 Screening Devices 581
14.1 Racks and screens 581
14.2 Fine screens 585
15 Comminutors 586
16 Grit Chamber 586
17 Flow Equalization 588
18 Sedimentation 592
18.1 Discrete particle sedimentation (type 1) 592
18.2 Scour 593
18.3 Sedimentation tank (basin) configuration 595
18.4 Flocculant settling (type 2) 600
18.5 Hindered sedimentation (type 3) 602
18.6 Compression settling (type 4) 606
19 Primary Sedimentation Tanks 607
19.1 Rectangular basin design 611
19.2 Circular basin design 614
20 Biological (Secondary) Treatment Systems 617
20.1 Cell growth 619
21 Activated-Sludge Process 621
21.1 Aeration periods and BOD loadings 622
21.2 F/M ratio 623
21.3 Biochemical reactions 626
21.4 Process design concepts 626
21.5 Process mathematical modeling 627
21.6 Operation and control of activated-sludge
processes 649
21.7 Modified activated-sludge processes 663
21.8 Aeration and mixing systems 681
22 Trickling Filter 696
22.1 Process description 696
22.2 Filter classification 698
22.3 Recirculation 698
22.4 Design formulas 698
23 Rotating Biological Contactor 711
23.1 Hardware 712
23.2 Process description 713
23.3 Advantages 716
23.4 Disadvantages 717
23.5 Soluble BOD
5
718
23.6 RBC process design 718
24 Dual Biological Treatment 726
25 Stabilization Ponds 726
25.1 Facultative ponds 727
25.2 Aerobic ponds 734
25.3 Anaerobic ponds 735
26 Secondary Clarifier 735
26.1 Basin sizing for attached-growth biological
treatment effluent 736
26.2 Basin sizing for suspended-growth biological
treatment 739
27 Effluent Disinfection 742
27.1 Chlorine dosage 743
27.2 Dechlorination 746
27.3 Process design 747
28 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 752
28.1 Suspended solids removal 753
28.2 Phosphorus removal 753
28.3 Nitrogen control 772
29 Sludge (Residuals) Treatment and Management 796
29.1 Quantity and characteristics of sludge 796
29.2 Sludge treatment alternatives 801
532 Chapter 6
1 What Is Wastewater?
“Wastewater,” also known as “sewage,” originates from household
wastes, human and animal wastes, industrial wastewaters, storm
runoff, and groundwater infiltration. Wastewater, basically, is the flow
of used water from a community. It is 99.94% water by weight (Water
Pollution Control Federation, 1980). The remaining 0.06% is material
dissolved or suspended in the water. It is largely the water supply of a
community after it has been fouled by various uses.
2 Characteristics of Wastewater
An understanding of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of wastewater is very important in design, operation, and management
of collection, treatment, and disposal of wastewater. The nature of waste-
water includes physical, chemical, and biological characteristics which
depend on the water usage in the community, the industrial and com-
mercial contributions, weather, and infiltration/inflow.
2.1 Physical properties of wastewater
When fresh, wastewater is gray in color and has a musty and not unpleas-
ant odor. The color gradually changes with time from gray to black. Foul
and unpleasant odors may then develop as a result of septic sewage.
The most important physical characteristics of wastewater are its tem-
perature and its solids concentration.
Temperature and solids content in wastewater are very important
factors for wastewater treatment processes. Temperature affects chem-
ical reaction and biological activities. Solids, such as total suspended
solids (TSS), volatile suspended solids (VSS), and settleable solids, affect
the operation and sizing of treatment units.
Solids. Solids comprise matter suspended or dissolved in water and
wastewater. Solids are divided into several different fractions and their
concentrations provide useful information for characterization of waste-
water and control of treatment processes.
Wastewater Engineering 533
29.3 Sewage sludge biosolids 840
29.4 Use and disposal of sewage sludge biosolids 841
29.5 Regulatory requirements 841
30 Wetlands 861
30.1 Natural wetlands 862
30.2 Aquatic plant systems 862
30.3 Constructed wetlands 863
References 884
Total solids. Total solids (TS) is the sum of total suspended solids and
total dissolved solids (TDS). Each of these groups can be further divided
into volatile and fixed fractions. Total solids is the material left in the
evaporation dish after it has dried for at least 1h or overnight (prefer-
ably) in an oven at 103 to 105⬚C and is calculated according to Standard
Methods (APHA et al., 1995)
(6.1)
where A ⫽ weight of dried residue plus dish, mg
B ⫽ weight of dish, mg
1000 ⫽ conversion of 1000 mL/L
Note: Samples can be natural waters, wastewaters, even treated water.
Total suspended solids. Total suspended solids (TSS) are referred to as
nonfilterable residue. The TSS is a very important quality parameter
for water and wastewater and is a wastewater treatment effluent stan-
dard. The TSS standards for primary and secondary effluents are usu-
ally set at 30 and 12 mg/L, respectively. TSS is determined by filtering
a well-mixed sample through a 0.2 mm pore size, 24 mm diameter mem-
brane; the membrane filter is placed in a Gooch crucible, and the residue
retained on the filter is dried in an oven for at least 1h at a constant
weight at 103 to 105°C. It is calculated as
(6.2)
where C ⫽ weight of filter and crucible plus dried residue, mg
D ⫽ weight of filter and crucible, mg
Total dissolved solids. Dissolved solids are also called filterable residues.
Total dissolved solids in raw wastewater are in the range of 250 to
850 mg/L.
TDS is determined as follows. A well-mixed sample is filtered through
a standard glass fiber filter of 2.0 mm normal pore size, and the filtrate
is evaporated for at least 1h in an oven at 180 ⫾ 2⬚C. The increase in
dish weight represents the total dissolved solids, which is calculated as
(6.3)
where E ⫽ weight of dried residue plus dish, mg
F ⫽ weight of dish, mg
mg TDS/L 5
sE 2 F d 3 1000
sample volume, mL
mg TSS/L 5
sC 2 Dd 3 1000
sample volume, mL
mg TS/L 5
sA 2 Bd 3 1000
sample volume, mL
534 Chapter 6