Peterson A.T., Hewitt V., Vaughan H., Kellogg A.T. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing through American History, 1900 to the Present. Volume 1: 1900-1949
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
and families still found enough pocket change to go to the movies. The
1932 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid inspired many Americans to take
up sports such as skiing and ice skating. Swimming remained a wide-
spread pastime, but most Americans chose inexpensive pastimes such as
board games, puzzles, and listening to the radio.
The first half of the 1940s was dominated by WWII. For the adults
who did not serve in the war, daily life involved working in factories. Civil-
ians were responsible for conserving and contributing to the war effort as
much as they could. This usually involved salvaging, recycling, and planting
Victory Gardens.
Most socialization during the 1940s revolved around the war effort.
People went to USOs to dance and entertain the servicemen. Movies and
sing-alongs were popular group activities, and baseball was seen as the all-
American spor t. Although many of the major league players were off fight-
ing overseas, African Americans and women held games for eager crowds.
After the war, Americans took advantage of the increased production
of commercial cars. Families took Sunday drives and road trips. National
parks across the United States were frequent destinations. By the close of
the decade, Americans no longer had to abide by train schedules; they
could get nearly anywhere they wanted in their cars.
THE
1900S
At the turn of the century, the population was shifting away from rural
areas and into cities. The urban areas not only had the possibility for
work, they also had amenities such as telephones, electricity and indoor
plumbing. Even the most poor tenement housing had indoor plumbing,
although one bathroom might be shared by four or five families.
Daily life tended to be fairly consistent for each c lass. One day was
much like another, except for holidays and the rare special occasion. The
working class worked. Those that managed to find themselves in the
growing middle class worked as well, although the nature of their work
tended to be less grueling than that of the working class. Technology and
industrialization created jobs that needed education and skills that were
usually only available in urban areas. Increasingl y, fewer farms could feed
more people. Industrialization was moving the country, and that meant
that the population was shifting to the urban areas.
For the first time in history, large numbers of people were improving
their economic status. It was truly possible for someone who was born dirt
The 1900s
89
poor to become a millionaire, but this generally meant that people had to
move to the city. Individuals and families had to work hard, but the poor
could join the middle class and those in the middle class worked to
become wealthy. The rich had somewhat more leisurely lives, but they,
too, had a rather rigid daily schedule. Class distinctions and rigorous rules
of etiquette governed ever y aspect of social life during the first decade of
the century.
Upper-class women were frequently objects for display. The implication
was that the less work they did, the more leisurely they seemed to be, the
more money their husbands and fathers made. Those families trying to join
the upper classes would work diligently to have their women appear as if they
had nothing to do, even if that was not true. Appearances were important.
Upper-class women were expected to have a variety of activities during the
day. Each activity meant a different outfit; a woman could not be seen at
afternoon tea wearing the same outfit she wore during a morning’s activity.
Fashion at the turn of the century meant clothes that were trouble-
some. A woman could not just ‘‘throw on a dress’’ and be ready to receive
guests or go shopping. There were corsets and garments that required the
attendance of at least one maid. The ‘‘S-bend ’’ corset, popular at the turn
of the century, forced a woman’s hips back and her bosom forward, pro-
ducing the popular ‘‘S’’ shape. The corset also created what was referred to
as the ‘‘monobosom.’’ This corset required at least one maid to help lace
and tighten the corset until the wearer’s figure attained the appropriate
shape. Many physicians complained about this corset, saying that it did
more harm than good to a woman’s bones and internal organs, but weal-
thy women needed to look as if they did not need to worry about such
things. No country farm woman, or any of the working-class women,
could work in this corset. Also, they could not afford a maid to take care
of the corset or the rest of the clothes.
A maid was required to maintain the wardrobe for the lady of the
house. The maid was responsible for the cleaning, mending, ironing, and
general maintenance of a wealthy woman’s wardrobe. The maid would
also have to help the lady dress, because there was no way any one woman
could fasten, attach, and arrange the various garments that the ‘‘well-
dressed woman’’ of the early 1900s needed. Women may have found some
of the fashion dictates to be uncomfortable and confining, but that was
the point. The ideal in the 1900s envisioned women in a confined role;
they were not supposed to have anything better to do than be ladylike,
manage their households, and raise their children.
Middle- and upper-class women spent much of their day constantly
changing clothes. If a woman were to dress comfortably or be seen in the
90
DAILY LIFE
same outfit twice in one day, she could bring scandal and ridicule onto
her family. At the beginning of the twentieth century, few women were
willing to do this. Subtle changes were occurring and dramatic events,
such as WWI, were on the horizon, so it was not long before this particu-
lar lifestyle would be gone forever.
During the last half of the nineteenth century, technology and indus-
try developed a series of inventions that would change the course of life
more rapidly than in any previous century. Most of these inventions
seemed to become established in the urban areas. Urban areas grew into
large cities, and the residents of those cities demanded the new inventions
and conveniences, such as electric light and indoor plumbing. These con-
veniences helped attract more people to urban areas, which tended to
increase the desire for new technology. One of those initially unassuming
inventions was the telephone.
The telephone was invented in 1876. Whereas its predecessor, the
telegraph, had begun to change how people communicated across great
distances, the telephone increased the speed of those changes. By the end
of 1909, the telephone was no longer a ‘‘curiosity.’’ It was common in
urban areas and allowed news to travel quickly. The leisurely pace of life
began to speed up, and women were less accepting of the time it took to
wear the clothes that had been fashionable a mere decade earlier.
SOCIAL OCCASIONS
For the upper classes, ‘‘social’’ meant almost anything outside the house.
The rather rigid expectations of daily life that existed in the late 1800s
slid into the beginning of the 1900s. Each different activity occurred dur-
ing a specific time of day, and each required a specific outfit.
The early mornings were usually spent in delegating the day’s activ-
ities. Generally, the men were at work, so the women would be home and
a relatively comfortable, but fashionable, dress could be worn. The after-
noon hours were spent visiting others. Many of these visits were not sim-
ply friendly social calls but calls women made to other women in an
attempt to get on a particular guest list for an upcoming activity. The vis-
its were strictly set for fifteen minutes each, after which another guest
could be expected. These were very formal visits and required a formal
outfit designed for that specific kind of occasion.
At about 5:00 in the afternoon, women could make friendlier visits
that did not require as formal an outfit as the earlier visits. If a woman
was invited ‘‘to tea,’’ then the woman would have to wear something more
formal than if she was simply visiting a good friend. The women would
The 1900s
91
then leave to return home and change clothes for dinner. If a couple were
going out for the evening, yet another change of clothes was required.
Miscellaneous activities such as walking the dog might require yet another
change of c lothes. Women were to be seen, and they needed to be seen in
different outfits. Even on vacation, an upper-class woman could not be
seen in the same outfit twice during a week.
Advertising 1900 1910. In the first dec-
ades of the century, most companies
turned their advertising over to adver-
tising agencies. Providing a wide range
of services, including planning, research,
ad creation, and the implementation of
campaigns, agencies modernized prod-
uct advertising. They became focused
on how well the advertising worked.
They created basic customer surveys and
compared how the same ad performed
in various publications.
Women became principal targets for
advertisers because women were the pri-
mary purchasers of the famil y’s con-
sumer goods. Food, soap, and cosmetics
advertisements had strong appeals to
women. They were usually written in an
editorial style with claims about the
product and a coupon or sample. Crisco
vegetable shortening, Maxwell House
coffee, Ivory soap, and Cutex nail polish
were all advertised in this way.
A new form of adver tising called
atmospheric advertising emerged during
these decades. It created a desirable
atmosphere around the product through
large stylized images and text that
stopped the reader from turning the
page. There were fewer words on the
page, and the whole look of the ad was
intended to give the impression of
integrity, quality, and prestige. Multi-
ple-plate printing allowed for colorful,
pictorial-style ads.
This period became the golden age
of trademarked advertising. Agencies
developed memorable characters such as
the Morton Salt Girl, the Campbell’s
Kids, Buster Brown, Planter’s Mr. Pea-
nut, and Cracker Jack’s Sailor Jack.
Copywriters developed carefully worded
slogans such as Maxwell House’s ‘‘Good
to the last drop,’’ Greyhound Bus’s
‘‘Leave the driving to us,’’ and Morton
Salt’s ‘‘When it rains, it pours.’’
During this era, there was an em-
phasis on health and cleanliness, and
advertisers focused on these themes. In
1906, the U.S. government passed the
Pure Food and Drugs Act, which
required a listing of ingredients on all
foods and medicines. Advertisers
included health c laims in the copy for
many products, including Dixie cups
and Scott Tissue. Some of the copy
was sensational with its frank explana-
tion of the health horrors that might
befall someone who chose another
product.
92
DAILY LIFE
Evening activities usually revolved
around one’s social circle or the arts.
Dinner parties and balls were carefully
arranged. Invitees had to be of a cer-
tain social standing, and great effort
was placed on inviting excellent con-
versationalists and graceful dancers.
Bachelor men with good conversation
skills were seen as a valuable commod-
ity and were often invited to parties as
a fill-in for someone who could not
make it or to enter tain spinster aunts.
Theater productions, symphonies, and
operas were other popular evening
activities.
HEALTH AND LEISURE ACTIVITIES
Leisure activities were rare for the ru-
ral population and the urban poor.
Men would work during the day, and,
in the evening, they might join a few
friends and go to a local tavern and socialize over a mug of beer. Women
would work in the fields or at their jobs during the day, then do house-
work or take care of their children in the evening. Urban women who
worked as domestics, especially in the north, would live in the homes of
their employers. Those who were able to go home on weekends or at the
end of the day still had to care for their own families. Live-in domestic
help were always on-call and rarely got any leisure time at all, which
accounted for the high turnover rate.
For the majorit y of people at the beginning of the 1900s, health was
precarious at best, especially for those living in urban areas. If they did
not get caught in some kind of dangerous activity or a dangerous occupa-
tion, they were susceptible to whatever illnesses might come their way.
Medical science was still in its infancy, and there were few physicians,
most of whom were in the cities. Rural areas relied on the traditions that
their families and communities used for generations.
The growth of urban centers had exploded, and the infrastructure and
engineering had not kept up. Most city dwellers did not have access to
clean water, which led to epidemics, including cholera and yellow fever.
For example, in the beginning of the century, many New Yorkers still
An example of the
popular S-bend cor-
set. [Library of
Congress]
The 1900s
93
relied on pit toilets and outhouses (Marshall 2006, 28). Like New York,
most cities worked valiantly to overcome their sewage problems and saw
much progress in the early years of the new century. Chicago was able to
overcome decades of disease with the opening of its Sanitary and Ship
Canal in 1900. By cleaning up the water and sewer systems, most cities
saw their disease rates plummet.
Diet and exercise were almost unknown in the sense that people use
the terms today. Most of the working class got enough exercise from their
jobs. Those in the upper classes did not see the need for exercise. A slen-
der figure might mean that an individual had to work for a living. People
who had money could afford more food and they had more leisure time.
Having a few extra pounds actually was an attractive feature in some
circles because that could indicate that people had lots of leisure time.
Adult women, especially rich adult women, were not to be seen sweating.
These women would have servants doing any heavy work.
As the middle class and the Progressive party grew more popular, peo-
ple became more conscious of health issues. Slowly, the country learned
and accepted that an individual’s health would suffer if he or she worked
long hours in filthy or hazardous surroundings. Labor unions developed,
and they fought for better working conditions for their members. A better
financial situation for many families allowed them to have more leisure
time. Many young people found that sports were an enjoyable way to spend
leisure time.
For the first time ever, women started to publicly enjoy sports as
much as men did, and they par ticipated in some of the same sports
men enjoyed. The bicycle became exceptionall y popular in the late
1800s, and its popularity continued to grow in the new century. It was
acceptable for men and women to ride bicycles and w omen did, in large
numbers. The bicycle allowed a woman to travel freely, without a man
to help her. The younger women began to go places and do things by
themselves. Many people feared that the bic ycle would destroy the fam-
ily structure because women could go places on their own. They also
feared what men and women would d o if they were unchaperoned.
Although it did not destroy the family as much as some feared, it did
eventually cause designers to consider c lothing that would be more
appropriate. Still, many women rode their bikes while wearing even the
‘‘S-bend’’ corset.
In 1895, bowling became standardized. Before that time, every com-
munity developed different rules. When the rules became standardized,
they also inc luded rules for women’s play. Many women learned to enjoy
the spor t.
94
DAILY LIFE
Americans enjoyed other sports during this period. Tennis and golf
achieved popularity and were played by both men and women. Each sport
required a different kind of outfit. Few sports could be played by a woman
wearing a corset or bustle.
Although these sports did not emancipate women as the bicycle did,
these activities had one thing in common: the women who engaged in
these sports began to complain about their clothes, insisting that ‘‘old-
fashioned’’ fashion was inhibiting their lifestyles. Not everyone would
engage in travel or sports, but enough women did that fashion started to
change. The great fashion houses could not afford to ignore the growing
numbers of women who wanted clothes that fit their new lifestyles.
Travel was another popular leisure activity. Young wealthy Americans fre-
quently went on a European tour for their honeymoons or before they started
working. Europe was seen as the center of culture despite the vast artistic tal-
ent in the United States and the American museums filled with fine art.
The age of westward expansion had come to a close, and rail lines
linked the east coast and midwest to the western half of the United
States. Train travel tended to be dirty, loud, and uncomfortable, but it was
the fastest way to get around the United States.
In the first decade of the century, only the wealthy could afford auto-
mobiles. The general public saw them more as expensive toys and nuisan-
ces than a mode of transportation. They would frequently break down,
and the owner would need to acquire the skills to fix it or bring along a
mechanic for the ride. The open cabin and lack of a windshield on the
automobile resulted in dust-covered drivers and passengers. To protect
themselves, motorists would wear a long coat called a duster, gloves, gog-
gles, and a hat.
Although alcohol was the dr ug of choice during the 1900s, the tem-
perance movement sought to combat it. Reformers saw alcohol as a coun-
teragent to family values. Opium was another drug under scrutiny during
this period. It was associated with Chinese immigrants, some of whom
imported the drug. Opium dens were dark, hazy rooms where opium
users stayed while they were on the drug. The proliferation of opium use
led to the outlaw of its importation in 1909.
THE
1910S
WWI had a tremendous impact on the daily life of many Americans. Many
men joined the war effort in Europe. After the United States declared war
The 1910s
95
on Germany, most communities had several young men who enlisted in the
war effort. As Europeans had discovered, someone had to keep the country
going to support the troops and create the weapons and materials that the
troops needed. For the first time, American women in large numbers
became employed in a variety of jobs, most of which had been done
by men.
Women drove automobiles and worked in factories, and they joined
military-like units that provided support to the military troops. They held
jobs in large numbers and it was respectable. Their clothes, however, had
to change. Nurses could not help the wounded and sick while wearing
hobble skirts or bustles. Women who worked with machinery could not
wear ornate dresses. Women wore work clothes that were strictly utilitar-
ian. Corsets were still required for many clothes, but, instead of restricting
motion, they were supposed to help support the body. Some women
actually wore pants, because the job required them. Many wore a form of
culottes because they made the work easier. Many wore dresses that
resembled military uniforms. Skirts, which had slowly become shorter to
accommodate bicycles and other sports, became even shorter. Women in
the workforce needed and demanded clothes that were comfortable.
Many of the superfluous fashions of past generations disappeared.
Hats with lots of feathers and jewels, dresses of silk and velvet, and skirts
with yards and yards of material were seen as unpatriotic. The material
was needed for uniforms and bandages for the soldiers. People were
encouraged to buy war bonds rather than expensive dresses and jewelry.
Flaunting wealth by wearing expensive clothing was considered inappro-
priate considering the many families who had family members die in
the war.
After the war, many women wanted to return to the simpler lives they
had before the war. Many could not because their soldiers did not return
or were so wounded that they could not get good jobs. Many women were
thus forced to retain their jobs and become the support of their families.
Many women found that they did not want to return to the restrictive
lifestyles they had before the war. This caused much tension across the
country as men saw women competing for the same jobs. It also blurred
the lines between home life and work life.
Women had achieved a level of independence; they had jobs to do and
those jobs helped the Allies win the war. Many women, especially those
in the middle classes, realized that they could survive on their own with-
out a man to make decisions for them. Women did not want to follow
the lives their mothers and grandmothers led, nor did they want their
fashions.
96
DAILY LIFE
By the end of WWI, women had the right to vote, which brought
social issues into the political limelight. Birth control became a volatile
issue. Margaret Sanger tried to educate women about birth control, which
spurred critical backlash from conservatives. Temperance groups gained
momentum. Their work against alcohol would see fruition during Prohi-
bition in the next decade.
The isolation of rural life evaporated as new forms of communication
linked rural residents to cities and the outside world. Their lives changed
in other ways as well. They were able to purchase the same products as
urbanites by ordering from the Sears Roebuck and Montgomery Ward
catalogs. Motorized machinery reduced much of the backbreaking labor
and need to hire additional workers or purchase draft animals. Prices for
crops went up during the war, so farmers experienced profitable harvests.
Cities continued to grow as immigrants settled there. Most ethnic
groups settled in distinct ethnic neighborhoods. With their ethnic group,
they built social structures, such as houses of worship, stores, aid societies,
unions, theater groups, and native language newspapers. The immigrants’
sons and daughters often broke away from their parents’ ethnic life and
adopted a more homogenous American lifestyle.
In addition to the war, new technologies influenced daily life in the
1910s. The electric light bulb, a seemingly innocuous item, could be said
to have changed the daily life of the world. The light bulb would allow
people to extend their lives beyond the daylight hours. It was cleaner and
safer than gas and candles. As more people wanted to have their houses
wired for light, people began to consider other things that could be done
with electricity. Once people had their homes wired for light, it was sim-
ple to find other uses for the electricity.
One such item was the phonograph. This invention allowed music
and voice to be reproduced and played back repeatedly. People who could
afford to have several phonograph disks would be able to entertain them-
selves and their friends at home. A radio, although not in widespread use
in the earl y twentieth century, was available in some large urban areas.
People could turn on their radios and get a variety of news and entertain-
ment items without leaving their homes.
Large cities had subways and electric trolleys, which brought people to
large areas such as parks to listen to bands and other forms of entertain-
ment. Whereas some people would continue to go to the theater and see
plays, others would visit vaudeville houses and be entertained by music such
as Scott Joplin’s ragtime music. Various comedy and dramatic acts would
also be seen on the vaudeville stage. Life and entertainment became more
casual.
The 1910s
97
SOCIAL OCCASIONS
Women continued to aspire to marriage, and society continued to expect
them to remain devoted wives to their dominant husbands. The war had
changed this dynamic, and many women began to spend time marching for
Irene and Vernon Castle. Irene and Ver-
non Castle were a dynamic husband
and wife ballroom dancing duo, who
helped popularize modern dancing. The
couple debuted in New York in 1912
performing ragtime dances such as the
‘‘turkey trot’’ and ‘‘grizzly bear.’’ Their
popularity was immediate, and they
were soon in demand in stage produc-
tions, vaudeville, and motion pictures.
They opened a dancing school, Cas-
tle House, in New York and taught
local socialites modern dancing. Their
dance lessons were often secured by pri-
vate clients, and they commanded high
prices. They are attributed with refining
and popularizing the fox trot. They
appeared in the newsreel Social and The-
atrical Dancing in 1914 and wrote the
book Modern Dancing, which became a
bestseller. Although they appeared in
numerous movies, their best success was
their performance in Irving Berlin’s first
musical, Watch Your Step, in 1914.
Irene became a fashion icon during
the 1910s. She bobbed her hair several
years before it was common. She wore
shorter skirts and wore dresses designed
by Lucille or herself. In magazines, she
was held up as a model of the fashiona-
ble woman, with the grace to successfully
carry any style. Vernon, who was a pilot,
died during WWI training maneuvers in
1918, but Irene continued to appear in
films. In 1939, their story was made into
the movie The Story of Vernon and Irene
Castle, starring Fred Astaire and Ginger
Rogers.
Irene and Vernon Castle demonstrating
dance. [Library of Congress]
98
DAILY LIFE