Peterson A.T., Hewitt V., Vaughan H., Kellogg A.T. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing through American History, 1900 to the Present. Volume 1: 1900-1949

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

visibly active first lady in the nation’s history. Her presence and her ability

to listen to what she was told helped FDR maintain his popularity

throughout his presidency.

Initially, FDR’s main concern was with the country’s economy. He used

the radio to broadcast a series of fireside chats to tell the American public

what was happening around the country. Many Americans would gather

around the radio to listen to what FDR had to say, and the fact that he

was willing to ‘‘talk to them’’ seem to give the country hope and encour-

agement. FDR seemed approachable, a complete contrast to Hoover.

As the economy improved, FDR’s attention was drawn to interna-

tional politics. He was aware of the change in Europe and the increasing

popularity of Hitler and Mussolini. He also began to distrust the increas-

ing aggression of the Japanese government. Roosevelt realized that the

American people still remembered the Great War of 1917 and the coun-

try did not want to become involved in foreign problems. Believing that

the United States would, at best, have to protect itself against other mili-

tary powers, FDR kept a quiet watch over international affairs, building a

strong relationship with the British.

FDR did have his critics. Many Americans believed that FDR’s poli-

cies were aimed at businesses and management. Many people did not feel

as if the Democratic agenda was benefiting them. Huey Long, a senator

from Louisiana and a former governor of that state, acquired a large fol-

lowing throughout the south and midwest. Long might have been a chal-

lenge to FDR during the 1936 elections, but Long was assassinated

before the campaign began.

An anti-Semitic priest, Father Charles Coughlin, also used the radio

to tell Americans that FDR’s policies were only helping ‘‘rich Jewish

bankers’’ in large cities. Coughlin developed increasingly conservative

views that criticized the democratic form of government and what he

believed to be the control of the government by the Jews. By the end of

the 1930s, many radio stations would refuse to broadcast his speeches, but

many Americans continued to believe in Coughlin’s policies.

By the end of the decade, labor had begun to challenge management

and corporate America. Labor unions, such as the United Mine Workers,

the United Auto Workers, the American Federation of Labor, and the

Congress of Industrial Organizations, began to gain strength. Movies and

popular literature portrayed labor unions as being the voice of the Ameri-

can people, and the growth of labor unions helped curtail the power that

corporate America had during decades of Republican presidencies.

The shift from corporate power to the people also encouraged a series

of activities by individuals. Charles Lindbergh was the first to fly solo

POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS

across the Atlantic and received a hero’s welcome when he returned to the

United States. Amelia Earhart became the first female aviator to fl y solo

across the Atlantic. Earhart’s popularity did not completely reflect the

attitudes of the country toward women. Many corporations would not

hire married women. Despite the achievements of Earhart, Mrs. Roose-

velt, and others like them, the country continued to believe the Victorian

notions that women were fragile and needed extra protection.

ECONOMIC TRENDS

The 1930s were largely shaped by the Great Depression. The stock mar-

ket crash of 1929 was not the sole cause the Great Depression. The eco-

nomic difficulties of the 1930s were the result of the business practices of

the 1920s. Many other countries also experienced some level of economic

depression in the 1930s. The practices and policies of the 1920s caused a

slow deterioration that had gone unnoticed until the crash. The crash was

a profound, memorable occasion that would remain in the minds of most

people. They knew bad times were coming, but they could not expect the

decade that followed the seemingly prosperous 1920s.

President Herbert Hoover had been secretary of commerce during

Coolidge’s administration. Hoover believed that cooperation between

businesses, rather than government intervention, would improve business.

After the crash, Hoover would not allow the government to directly inter-

vene in the affairs of individual Americans. He thought that people

needed an incentive to work; if the government gave indigent, unem-

ployed, and homeless people some form of government handout, then

people would lose the incentive to work. His administration only loaned

money to corporations that were likely to repay the loan.

When a group of WWI veterans asked the government in 1932 for

early payment of a bonus that Congress had granted them, the House

agreed to discuss the issue with them, but the Senate refused. Hoover

refused to meet with the veterans. The veterans camped in Washington,

DC, demanding their appeals be considered. Hoover sent federal troops

led by General Douglas MacArthur to their encampment. The veterans’

shanties were burned and the veterans were forced out of Washington.

Regardless of what Americans thought of the veterans’ request, many

were appalled at Hoover’s apparent disregard for their safety. When the

elections were held later that year, Hoover was turned out of office when

his opponent, FDR, won by a landslide.

FDR, a cousin of Theodore Roosevelt, won the 1932 election easily.

He was a personable individual who was never seen publicly as an invalid,

The 1930s

although his movements were limited because of polio. FDR immediately

started a variety of plans aimed at restoring the nation’s financial institu-

tions and the economic health of the American people. These plans were

often referred to as ‘‘alphabet’’ programs because most of them were

known by letters. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration granted

money to the poor. The Civilian Conservation Corps created environ-

mentally friendly jobs for millions of men. The Homeowners Loan Cor-

poration helped homeowners refinance their mortgages. One of the

largest projects was the Tennessee Valley Authority, which provided a

variety of projects on the Tennessee River, including flood control and the

harnessing of electrical power.

Although many of his programs had detractors, FDR was successful in

getting the economy moving upward. He easily won reelection in 1936

and he continued his programs, most of which were aimed at breaking up

large corporate agencies and shifting the tax burden from the middle class

to the wealthier segments of the population. He also worked to develop

international trade and relationships with countries throughout the world,

not just in Latin America. His administration worked to obtain free trade

agreements with other countries, although FDR’s foreign plans never were

as successful as his domestic policies. Many foreign countries, Germany

and Italian chief among them, thought that their future lay in a strong

military and not in trade.

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

In 1932, a World Disarmament Conference was held in Geneva, Switzer-

land. The goal of the conference was to establish rules that would prevent

the military buildup of any country, thus preventing additional wars.

Because the United States, Britain, and France had improved their milita-

ries, Germany was able to denounce the conference and withdrew from it.

Germany had already begun to rearm and rebuild its military with the

express goal of regaining control of Europe.

Japan, a country that had not had a major role in the Great War,

nevertheless had ideas of becoming a power in Asia. During the 1920s,

the leaders of Japan believed that it could continue to grow and become a

world power only by taking control of Asia. In 1927, Japan began prepar-

ing to take control of Manchuria, an area in northern China that had a

large Japanese population. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and gained

complete control of the province by 1932. China appealed to the League

of Nations, but that organization was unable to force the Japanese to

withdraw from Manchuria. The League issued a warning that Japan had

POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS

to withdraw from Manchuria, but Japan instead withdrew from the

League of Nations. The League was powerless to do anything to help

China.

The United States was disturbed by the Japanese tactics, but the

Hoover administration refused to allow sanctions against the Japanese.

Although Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson wanted a tougher response

to Japan, President Hoover refused. A note was sent to Japan indicating

that the United States would intervene if American interests were vio-

lated. This doctrine, ironically, came to be called the Stimson Act. The

Japanese interpreted Hoover’s response to mean that the United States

would not prevent Japan from attaining additional power in Asia.

To a great degree, the Japanese were correct. Americans still remem-

bered the Great War, and they did not want to become involved in

another foreign entanglement. They believed the country was safe because

it was bordered by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Americans wanted to

remain neutral and let others fight their own battles. The attitude was

definitely isolationist. As Germany, Italy, and Japan increased their

aggressive behaviors during the 1930s, FDR became increasingly con-

cerned that the United S tates would have to enter another war.

Germany and Italy invaded other countries, and there was no real

effort to stop their aggression. Most countries would issue statements

condemning the German invasion of Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938

but believed Hitler each time he said that he would invade no other coun-

tries. Although his behaviors contradicted his comments to world leaders,

no one made any actual attempts to stop Germany until its invasion of

Poland in 1939. Much of Europe began to arm with the intent of stop-

ping Germany, but they had begun their preparations too late. By the end

of 1939, much of Europe was, or soon would be, under German control.

Recognizing that the majorit y of the people would not approve of any

signs of war preparations, FDR did what he could to prepare the military

and to help the country’s allies to prepare for war. FDR would frequently

meet with the new British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and the

two leaders would discuss how the United States could best aid Britain

and the rest of Europe. Both men believed that war was inevitable, but

they did not know how to overcome the intense American desire for iso-

lationism and neutrality.

ETHNICITY

The Great Depression was difficult for all Americans, but minorities were

hit especially hard. Whereas the general unemployment rate in 1933 was

The 1930s

25 percent, for minorities it was 50 percent (Simpson and Yinger 1985,

195). Minorities were the first groups who lost their jobs, and, for those

who were able to keep them, their pay was decreased. Racial discrimina-

tion was widespread during the Depression, and minority workers were

denied jobs in public works programs and overlooked by many charities.

Animosity toward minorities rose as the economy declined, and violence

including lynching increased.

In the south, many African Americans were sharecroppers. They

farmed rented land and lived in small shacks without electricity or running

water. As the Depression continued, hundreds of thousands of African

Americans left the south with the hope of more opportunities in the

north. Scarcity of jobs left many of these migrants waiting in bread lines.

FDR tried easing the nation’s suffering with the New Deal programs,

but African Americans were generally excluded from the benefits of these

programs. FDR’s second New Deal offered many more opportunities for

them. The administration remedied some of the discrimination in the

federal programs. They even appointed blacks to several federal positions.

Mexican Americans were poorly treated during the Depression. Like

African Americans, they were the target of racism because whites thought

their jobs were unfairly going to minorities. Most Mexican Americans lived

in the southwest as migrant farm workers. During Hoover’s administration,

were rounded up by county and local police and deported. The police would

often make mass arrests and go door-to-door demanding proof of residency.

During the 1930s, the FDR administration attempted to redress the

wrongs inflicted on Native Americans in previous generations. In 1934,

the Indian Reorganization Act was signed into law. The act made tribes

eligible for federal funds to receive social ser vices, purchase land, and start

businesses. In the following year, Congress encouraged the production of

Native-American crafts by creating the Indian Arts and Crafts Board. It

even allowed Native Americans to trademark their designs.

THE

1940S

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL MOVEMENTS

WWII transformed the life of Americans during the 1940s. Throughout

the 1930s, the United States had successfully stayed isolated from the

German aggression in Europe. On the morning of December 7, 1941, the

Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. Shocked by this direct attack, Americans

were drawn into the war and became suspicious of Japanese Americans.

POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS

In the coming weeks and months, Japanese Americans were forced to

address difficult questions of identity, family, and patriotism.

Thousands of Japanese Americans on the west coast were sent to

internment camps in the spring of 1942, presumably to prevent spying

and sabotage. Their homes were seized, possessions confiscated, and free-

dom lost as Japanese Americans were forcibl y evicted and incarcerated in

American-style concentration camps. Some were able to relocate outside

the restricted west coast zone, some enlisted in the military to prove their

loyalty to the United States, and others resettled in the midwest and on

the east coast (Cayton and Williams 2001).

After the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and the United States

entered the war, the U.S. government established the War Production

Board, which began rationing certain items that it deemed impor tant to

the war effort. In 1942, the War Production Board began rationing sugar,

gasoline, and coffee, followed by meat, fat, cheese, canned goods, leather,

and shoes in 1943. Also, it began severely restricting the amount of fabric

used in garments. The board and the rationing it imposed were dissol ved

after Japan’s defeat in 1945.

The spirit of isolationism as an American foreign policy ended when

representatives of fifty nations met in San Francisco in April 1945 to

design the framework of the United Nations. Containment of the Soviet

Union became American policy after the war. This containment called for

extensive economic aid to assist the recovery of western Europe. The

Marshall Plan, known officially after its enactment as the European Re-

covery Program, was the primary plan of the United States for rebuilding

the allied countries of Europe and repelling communism after WWII.

The reconstruction plan was developed at a meeting of the participating

European states in July 1947.

After the war, anticommunist Republicans began to surface. Senator

Joseph McCarthy and Congressman Richard Nixon attacked President

Truman’s administration for being too soft on communism. They con-

demned Republicans who embraced FDR’s New Deal programs, which

they described as ‘‘creeping socialism.’’ The air of suspicion would con-

tinue through the Cold War in the decades to come.

ECONOMIC TRENDS

WWII pulled the United States out of the Great Depression, during

which millions of Americans were unemployed. The war called most men

into service, and the labor surplus was replaced with a severe labor short-

age on both farms and in factories. Although industry attempted

The 1940s

to alleviate its labor shortages by employing women and African Ameri-

cans, agriculture still felt the effects of the shortage. In some areas,

schools were closed to allow children time to help with the harvest.

Generally, women were proud to do their part to support the war

effort and were encouraged to join the workforce by Rosie the Riveter

posters. Traditional barriers clearly defining ‘‘men’s work’’ and ‘‘women’s

work’’ quickly dissolved as women became crucial to America’s production

efforts. Although wage disparity continued, women enjoyed the greater

opportunities that war work provided (Baker 1992).

The upturn in the economy exploded during the postwar period.

As price controls and restrictions were lifted, prices began to climb. The

rising prices forced many women to continue work to help buy things

their families needed, but working women faced criticism. Most Ameri-

cans were afraid women were taking jobs away from returning veterans.

Women were expected to go back home and tend to their families so that

the men could return to their rightful place as head of the household. It

was a difficult transition for both men and women. Some women who

had grown accustomed to their new-found independence did not appreci-

ate being forced back into a solely domestic role.

Employers were gearing up with new technology and an expanding

economy, and many returning veterans did not have the experience to

compete for the emerging jobs. The greatest injustice was to soldiers who

had been injured. Many employers did not want to be slowed down by an

employee who they believed would not be productive enough as a result

of a war injury.

P e rsonal savings increased dramatically during the war because of higher

employment rates and a scarcity of products. As the workforce returned

from serving the military, companies were able to increase their production

levels. Released from the burdens of manufacturing for the war effort,

American industry focused on producing more consumer goods than ever.

Techn ological innovations led to new products, and exposure to mas s media,

specifically television in the home, shaped the public’s desire for modern

conveniences. New installment-plan fina ncing made consumer items more

easily available because families could now enjoy a new product before com-

pleting the payments.

The Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944, also known as the G.I.

Bill of Rights, provided a variet y of benefits for veterans of the war. The

act included financial assistance to help defer the cost of education, which

allowed more men to attend college and training schools. The guaranteed

home loans for veterans offered by the act were of great value for getting

back on track after military ser vice.

POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS

Advertising during WWII. During

WWII, the Office of War Information

created the most extensive advertising

campaign in history. The foci of the

campaign were internal security, ration-

ing, war bond sales, precautions against

venereal disease, and calls out to women

to join the wartime workforce. The

Office of War Information established

the War Advertising Council in 1942 to

carry out the advertising campaign, and

they worked with private advertising

agencies that donated near ly all of the

copy and artwork.

One of the council’s most famous

campaigns, Rosie the Riveter, came out of

the J. Walter Thompson Agency. Initially,

the campaign starred Rose Will Monroe,

a riveter at the Willow Run Aircraft Fac-

tory in Michigan. She appeared in a pro-

motional film about the war effort. Soon

thereafter, she inspired a song, and J.

Howard Miller created the iconic image

of a female riveter with her bared bicep

under the slogan, ‘‘We can do it!’’

Although she was not labeled as ‘‘Rosie’’

at the time, the fictional character later

became synonymous with the image. In

1943, Norman Rockwell’s depiction of

‘‘Rosie’’ appeared on the cover of The Sat-

urday Evening Post. Rosie the Riveter

became a cultural icon and increased the

number of women working in factories.

She also broadened the acceptability of

manual jobs for women.

Advertising for consumer goods

also focused on the war effort. Compa-

nies emphasiz ed their contribution t o

the war effor t and positioned their

products in ways that contributed to it.

For example, Brer Rabbit molasses pro-

vided recipes that conserved sugar, and

Stetson hats reminded consumers to

carefully guard information and ‘‘Keep

it under your Stetson.’’ Advertisers

touted themes such as patriotism, con-

ser vation, and teamwork.

Norman Rockwell cover illustration for The

Saturday Evening Post showing ‘‘Rosie the

Riveter’’ taking a lunch break. [Library of

Congress]

The 1940s

Residential construction had virtually ceased during the Depression

and war years of the 1930s and early 1940s. After the war, new housing

became a critical need, because the marriage rate began to rise along with

the birth rate of babies, resulting in the ‘‘baby boom.’’ These parents

wanted a yard and plenty of room for their growing families. In response

to these wants, a few developers pioneered the concept of suburban subdi-

visions. Accessible by cars provided by the growing automobile industry,

suburban living became part of the ‘‘American dream.’’

The American dream was a description of the popular ideal of Ameri-

can living. In addition to a suburban house, a shiny car, and a happy

nuclear family, the ideal espoused a host of modern conveniences. Every-

thing from dishwashers to barbeque grills were marketed to increasingly

materialistic Americans. Production of consumer products including inno-

vations from the war efforts now began to show up in stores and adver-

tised on the new medium of television.

During the late 1940s, the U.S. economic environment had shifted

from the deprivation of WWII to the prosperity and consumerism of the

1950s. Many families found it possible to buy a home in the suburbs, a

car, a refrigerator, a washing machine, and to have children and to give

them everything their parents had been deprived of for so long. Although

many young women temporaril y left the work force to begin families,

overall, married women’s labor force participation continued to rise after

the war and has been rising ever since.

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

Although Europe had been embroiled in WWII since 1939, the United

States had remained neutral in the conflict through the early years of the

conflict. By summer 1941 Poland, China, France, Denmark, Norway,

Great Britain, and the Soviet Union had all become victims of German,

Italian, and Japanese aggression. As the War escalated, the United States

found it more difficult to remain neutral as other nations were devastated.

FDR worked with the U.S. Congress to revise the neutrality act to allow

the United States to sell millions of tons of war material to Britain under

the Lend-Lease Act of 1941.

By December 1941, the United States was provoked into the war

when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, a U.S naval base. Germany

declared war on the United States three days later. The U.S. entry into

the war transformed it into a truly global conflict.

By 1945, the war that had dominated the political, social, and eco-

nomic worlds for the better part of five years began its close. The war had

POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS

destroyed many of Europe’s cities, and both civilian and military casualties

had mounted. In April 1945, after the Soviets invaded Germany, Adolph

Hitler committed suicide in his bunker. Grand Admiral Karl D€onitz

became the new leader of Germany, but German resolve evaporated with

the loss of Hitler. The German forces in Berlin, Italy, northern Germany,

Denmark, The Netherlands, and France surrendered in May 1945.

Although the Germans had given up the fight, the Japanese continued

their attacks. In August 1945, Harry Truman, who assumed the presi-

dency after FDR’s death in April, ordered a decisive attack on the Japa-

nese to try to bring about a swift end to the war. U.S. bombers dropped

nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, which devastated

the cities and killed or injured 225,000 people. (Lenman 1995, pp. 420,

650). In addition, tens of thousands suffered and later died from the radi-

ation. The Japanese surrendered six days later.

The closing year of the war also set the stage for the Cold War that

would dominate world relations for the next few decades. British Prime

Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, and Soviet

Premier Joseph Stalin met in Yalta in February 1945. During the conference

they agreed to give Stalin control of Eastern Europe, but he did not allow

free elections in his newly acquired land. As a result, Americans and the

British grew hostile toward Russia, and hostility grew into the Cold War.

European economies were devastated as a result of WWII, so the

leading allied countries considered various plans to restore order to inter-

national monetary relations. Twenty-nine countries created the Interna-

tional Money Fund (IMF) in December 1945. The institution was

designed to oversee the international monetary system, promote the elimi-

nation of exchange restrictions relating to trade in goods and services, and

support the stability of exchange rates. It approved its first loan on May

9, 1947, of $250 million to France for postwar reconstruction. (Yeager

1976).

The Nuremburg Trials, which were conducted from 1945 to 1949,

attempted to serve justice in the crimes that Nazis inflicted on Jews,

Catholics, homosexuals, and others they deemed as ‘‘undesirable.’’ The

media coverage of the trials brought the unspeakable crimes into public

consciousness. Americans responded to the atrocities with a shift toward

conservatism and patriotism.

Postwar U.S. foreign policy marked a distinct break from the isolation-

ism that characterized the country before the war. U.S. President Harry

Truman described the new strategy as the Truman Doctrine in a speech

on March 12, 1947. He defined it by casting the United States as the

‘‘world’s policeman.’’

The 1940s