Unger M.P. Historical Dictionary of Choral Music

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62 • CANTATA

or in the case of a collection of such works, Musikalischer Andacht,

Kirchenandacht.

The term cantata was applied to these works retrospectively in

the 1800s, when musicologists sought to categorize them on the

basis of their style and form. Thereafter the term was applied to

earlier analogs, with a distinction being made between the “old

cantata,” that is, a sectional Lutheran work that did not yet in-

corporate recitatives and operatic-style arias, and the “reformed

cantata,” which did so. (The new development had been made

possible by the introduction of madrigalian poetry suitable for

arias and recitatives by such clergyman-poets as Erdmann Neu-

meister, who wrote nine cycles of cantata texts, each containing

texts for all the Sundays of the church year and other feast days.

Neumeister introduced the new kind of poetry in his second cycle,

published in 1700 under the title Geistliche Cantaten statt einer

Kirchen-Music.)

Placed between the Gospel reading and the sermon, the Lutheran

cantata culminated a long tradition of “sermon music” that sought to

teach and persuade the listener. Its texts were written with this pur-

pose foremost in mind and therefore explored the scriptural themes

of the day in question. The extent to which the German church

cantata flourished was directly related to the degree to which it was

regarded as a significant medium for the proclamation, amplifica-

tion, and interpretation of scripture. Composers of Lutheran church

cantatas included Franz Tunder, Johann Rosenmüller, Dietrich

Buxtehude, Johann Philip Krieger, Johann Pachelbel, Johann

Kuhnau, Georg Böhm, Friedrich Zachow, Nicolaus Bruhns,

Christoph Graupner, Georg Philipp Telemann, and Johann Mat-

theson, among others. The core of the repertory, however, is Johann

Sebastian Bach’s contribution of some 200 extant sacred cantatas,

most of which were composed during his first six years in Leipzig

(1723–29). Many of his 15 surviving, securely attributed secular

cantatas originated later.

A special subtype of cantata is the chorale cantata, which is based

on the stanzas (and usually, the melody) of a Lutheran chorale

(hymn). Some chorale cantatas have pure chorale texts; others are

settings of mixed texts (only the outer movements and perhaps a

central movement employ stanzas from the chosen chorale, while

CANZONETTA • 63

the remaining ones use other texts). Bach wrote a cycle of chorale

cantatas (one for each Sunday of the church year) during his second

year in Leipzig (1724–25). In these works he began a new type (often

called the “chorale paraphrase cantatas”) in which the inner move-

ments employ texts that paraphrase the omitted chorale stanzas. The

greater cohesion ensured by the textual paraphrases is often strength-

ened further in these works by musical references to the underlying

chorale tune.

After 1750 the importance of the cantata in the Lutheran liturgy

declined under the influence of the Enlightenment and the conse-

quent advancing secularization and democratization in society. Musi-

cal trends, too (especially the trend away from the Baroque unity of

affect within discrete musical structures), made multisectional genres

such as the cantata less attractive to composers. In the 20th century,

the term cantata came to be more loosely used to designate almost

any quasi-sectional musical work for voices and instruments on a

religious text.

CANTICLE. A hymn taken from the Bible (excluding the book of

Psalms). The term is often expanded to include other nonscriptural

texts (e.g., the Te Deum) and certain psalms used liturgically. See

also BENEDICITE; JUBILATE; MAGNIFICAT; NUNC DIMITTIS;

TE DEUM; VENITE.

CANTOR. The chief singer in a Jewish or Christian liturgy; also a

choirmaster. See also KANTOR.

CANTORIS. See ENGLISH CATHEDRAL MUSIC OF THE REFOR-

MATION AND RESTORATION.

CANTUS FIRMUS. A preexisting melody, often Gregorian chant,

used as the structural basis for a polyphonic work. Cantus firmus

technique was particularly common in works of the Medieval and

Renaissance eras.

CANZONETTA [CANZONET]. A simple, light, secular vocal

piece flourishing from about 1560 to the late 1700s. It developed

in Italy from the three-voice villanella (canzone alla napolitana)

and the madrigal. For texts, the canzonetta employed strophic po-

ems on amorous, pastoral, satirical, and/or humorous subjects. The

64 • CAPPELLA GIULIA

early canzonetta was usually for three unaccompanied voices, with

a homophonic texture and lively rhythms. Earliest known collec-

tions were published by Giovanni Ferretti (1567) and Girolamo

Conversi (1572). In the 1580s, another important composer was

Orazio Vecchi, some of whose canzonettas parody the excesses

of the madrigal.

The popularity of Italian canzonettas brought them to Germany,

England, and the Netherlands, where they appeared in Italian form

and with new vernacular texts. Hans Leo Hassler brought the

genre to Germany, while Thomas Morley brought it to England,

where composers wrote “canzonets” that were longer and more

contrapuntal than the Italian models, and employed only one stro-

phe of poetry. They were therefore more or less indistinguishable

from madrigals. Morley equated the canzonetta with the canzone

alla napolitana—contrasting both with the older villanella. In Italy,

however, the canzone alla napolitana was considered the equivalent

of the villanella; both were considered less modern in style than the

canzonetta or canzona.

Claudio Monteverdi published his first set of canzonettas in 1584

(not counted among the eight books of madrigals published during

his lifetime). He took up the form again in his ninth (and last) book

of madrigals, published posthumously in 1651.

During the Baroque era, the canzonetta, like the madrigal, became

more solo-oriented, with accompaniment. This trend continued until

Joseph Haydn, who wrote a set of five English canzonettas for voice

and piano. Other composers of canzonettas include Giovanni Artusi,

Giovanni Maria Nanino, Luca Marenzio, Giovanni Croce, Felice

Anerio, Lodovico Grossi da Viadana, Pietro Cerone, Adriano

Banchieri, Giulio Caccini, and Salamone Rossi. See also BAL-

LETTO.

CAPPELLA GIULIA. The all-male choir at the Basilica of St. Peter

in the Vatican. It was named after Pope Julius II (pope from 1503

to 1513), who completely reorganized it. Maestri di cappella have

included Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Domenico Scarlatti,

and Niccolò Jommelli. From 1980 until 2006 the choir was directed

by Monsignor Pablo Colino, who supported the practice of having

visiting choirs sing at the Masses. The new director, Pierre Paul, has

CARPENTRAS • 65

broken with this practice, and also reemphasized Gregorian chant as

the primary form of singing.

CAPPELLA SISTINA. The all-male papal choir of the Sistine Cha-

pel in the Apostolic Palace, also known as the Papal Palace or the

Palace of the Vatican—the official residence of the pope. Called by

its official name from about 1480, the choir had 9 singers in 1436,

18 in 1450, 24 in 1533, and 28 in 1594. In 1625 its membership was

fixed at 32. Castrati were first listed as members in 1599, but the

practice of admitting them had evidently begun considerably ear-

lier. The choir has always sung without instruments—not even the

organ is used. The most illustrious singer in its history was probably

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, who was appointed to the choir in

January of 1555 by Pope Julius III, but he was dismissed the follow-

ing September when rules prohibiting married members were strictly

enforced under Pope Paul IV.

CARA, MARCHETTO (C. 1465–1525). Italian composer, singer, and

lute player, working primarily at the court of Mantua. With Bartolo-

meo Tromboncino, he was known for his frottole, of which over

100 examples for four voices are extant. He also composed a handful

of laude, and a three-voice motet setting of Salve regina.

CARDOSO, MANUEL (1566–24 NOVEMBER 1650). Portuguese

composer. Among his extant works are three books of masses and

one volume of motets, all for four to six voices. His style is charac-

terized by the contrapuntal techniques of the stile antico, enriched

with chromatic harmonies.

CARISSIMI, GIACOMO (BAPTIZED 18 APRIL 1605; DIED 12

JANUARY 1674). Italian composer. For 44 years he worked as

director of music at a Jesuit seminary in Rome, the Collegio Ger-

manico. His extant works include at least 10 Latin oratorios, 150

cantatas, and more than 110 motets. His influence was widely felt

through the broad dissemination of his music and his students, among

whom were Marc-Antoine Charpentier and Johann Kerll.

CARPENTRAS [GENET, ELZÉAR] (C. 1470–14 JUNE 1548).

French composer who served in the papal chapel. His extant sacred

music is almost entirely devoted to the divine office: Lamentations

66 • CARRINGTON, SIMON

(which were especially famous), hymn and Magnificat cycles, and

motet settings of antiphon and psalm texts required by the offices.

Five masses are also extant. Some of these works were published

in four anthologies during the composer’s lifetime. While he appar-

ently composed secular music in his early career, almost none of it

survives.

CARRINGTON, SIMON (23 OCTOBER 1942– ). English choral

singer and conductor. A graduate of King’s College, Cambridge,

he was a cofounder and the original music director of the King’s

Singers, with whom he performed as a baritone for 25 years in

tours, festivals, and broadcasts worldwide. Upon moving to the

United States, he taught at the University of Kansas (1994–2001),

the New England Conservatory (2001–2003), and Yale University

(2003–2009). He is active internationally as a guest conductor and

choral clinician.

CARTER, ELLIOTT (11 DECEMBER 1908– ). American modernist

composer. As a youth he came under the influence of Charles Ives,

who befriended him. After receiving a strong literary undergraduate

education at Harvard University, he stayed on to complete an MA in

music (1932), studying with Walter Piston, Archibald T. Davidson,

and Gustav Holst, among others. More influential in the immediate

term, however, were his subsequent studies with Nadia Boulanger

in Paris, where he cultivated an interest in early music (directing a

madrigal group), and adopted the neo-Classical style, leading him

to reject the modernist impulses of his earlier hero. By the 1940s,

however, he had regained his enthusiasm for the music of Ives, and

he began to develop a rhythmic organizational procedure (later called

“metric modulation”) in which crossrhythms and proportional tempo

changes create the impression of a second tempo.

Carter is best remembered for his instrumental works, which are

intellectually uncompromising. Among his one dozen choral works

(which all employ secular texts and generally come from his neo-

Classical period) are two madrigals with texts by Emily Dickinson:

Heart Not So Heavy as Mine (1938) and Musicians Wrestle Every-

where (1945); and pieces for choirs of particular American colleges,

among them, The Defense of Corinth for spkr., male vv., and pf. 4

hands (1941); and Emblems, for TTBB and pf. (1947).

CATCH • 67

CASALS, PABLO (29 DECEMBER 1876–22 OCTOBER 1973).

Catalan cellist of great renown, conductor, and composer. His cho-

ral compositions include expressive Latin motets in a traditional

style.

CASTELNUOVO-TEDESCO, MARIO (3 APRIL 1895–16

MARCH 1968). Italian composer of Jewish heritage, pianist, and

writer on music. He moved to the United States in 1939, when

anti-Jewish sentiment had reached a critical point in Italy resulting

in a ban against his music, and became active as a film composer

in California. His style evolved through the years, becoming in-

creasingly programmatic. Choral works (many of which are on

Jewish themes) include four oratorios, Il libro di Ruth, op. 140,

(1949), Il libro di Giona, op. 151 (1951), The Book of Esther, op.

200 (1962), and Tobias and the Angel, op. 204 (1965); several

dozen pieces with instruments; and more than a dozen works for

unaccompanied voices. Examples include Sacred Service, op. 122,

for Bar., chorus, and org. (1943, enlarged 1950); Kol nidre, for

cantor, chorus, org., and vc. (1944); Naomi and Ruth, op. 137, a

cantata for female vv. and pf./org. (1947); Romancero gitano, op.

152, for chorus and guitar (1951); The Queen of Sheba, op. 161, a

cantata for female vv. and pf. (1953); The Fiery Furnace, op. 183,

a chamber cantata for Bar. (nar.), children’s vv., pf./org., and perc.

(1958); and Memorial Service for the Departed, op. 192, for can-

tor, chorus, and org. (1960).

CATCH. A comic round song for male voices intended for leisure

use, most often for three or four voice parts. Catches were especially

popular in England during the 17th century. The words were selected

and constructed in such a way that through the interplay of voices

all kinds of (often bawdy) cross-readings would result. A number of

publishers issued collections early on: Thomas Ravenscroft (Pam-

melia [1609], Deuteromelia [1609], and Melismata [1611]), John

Playford (Musical Banquet [1651]), and John Hilton (Catch that

Catch Can [1652, with later editions published by Playford]. Henry

Purcell’s approximately 50 catches were printed in various collec-

tions. After about 1750, catch clubs sprang up all over England with

the hope of revitalizing the genre. By then, however, catches were

increasingly regarded as too indecent for polite society, and the clubs

68 • CAVALLI, PIETRO FRANCESCO

turned to glees instead. Thereafter most catches disappeared from the

choral repertoire.

CAVALLI, PIETRO FRANCESCO (14 FEBRUARY 1602–14

JANUARY 1676). Italian composer, organist, and singer, known

primarily for his operas. A singer at San Marco (St. Mark’s Basilica)

under Claudio Monteverdi, he later became one of the organists

there, and eventually the director of music (1668). His extant choral

music is largely sacred (composed, no doubt, for the Cathedral): a

mass for double choir and instruments, a requiem, 3 Vespers set-

tings (published in 1675 in one volume), 2 additional Magnificats,

and some 20 other motets for voices and instruments in the Venetian

style.

CAVENDISH, MICHAEL (C. 1565–?5 JULY 1628). English com-

poser who published a volume containing 20 solo ayres and 8 mad-

rigals. Of the madrigals, “Come Gentle Swains” was later reworked

for Thomas Morley’s Triumphes of Oriana.

CECILIAN MOVEMENT. A 19th-century reactionary movement

aimed at restoring historic Catholic church music traditions, in par-

ticular, ridding the liturgy of theatrical style and encouraging chant

and unaccompanied polyphony. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina

was regarded as the supreme master to be emulated. Many composers

found the guidelines of the Cecilians too restrictive, although some,

such as Anton Bruckner and Franz Liszt, occasionally tried to ac-

commodate their ideas.

CERTON, PIERRE (DIED 23 February 1572). French composer

famous especially for his chansons. From 1536 until the end of his

life, he served as master of choristers at La Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.

His extant choral works include 8 complete masses for four voices,

a Magnificat, about 40 motets for three to six voices (24 of them

appearing in a publication of 1542), psalm settings, and hundreds of

chansons (96 of them appearing in a 1570 publication entitled Les

meslanges).

CHADWICK, GEORGE WHITEFIELD (13 NOVEMBER 1854–4

APRIL 1931). Prominent American composer, teacher, and conduc-

tor; also a pianist and organist. Musically independent because his

father did not support his musical ambitions, he took lessons at the

CHANSON • 69

New England Conservatory in Boston before enrolling at the Leipzig

Conservatory, where his compositions received quick recognition.

After a stay in France with a group of American painters he studied

briefly with Joseph Rheinberger in Munich before returning to

Boston, where he established his reputation as a composer in most

genres. He taught at the New England Conservatory, becoming its

director in 1897, whereupon he expanded and reorganized the institu-

tion into a full-fledged conservatory.

Among his large-scale choral works are Ode for the Opening of

the Chicago World’s Fair, for S, T, SATB, wind ens., and orch.

(1892)—a massive work initially performed by a choir of 5000 and

an orchestra of 500; Ecce jam noctis, for male vv., org., and orch.

(1897); and the Christmas oratorio, Noël, for solo vv., SATB, and

orch. (1908). He also left more than 35 anthems, 19 choruses for

male voices, and 20 pieces for female voices.

CHANSON (FR. “SONG”). While the term may be used broadly to

refer to a wide range of French vocal compositions from the 14th,

15th, and 16th centuries, it is sometimes used more specifically to

designate 15th- and 16th-century polyphonic compositions with

French secular texts, excluding those in formes fixes (rondeau, vire-

lai, ballade). Lighter in mood than the motet, the chanson was popu-

larized in the 16th century among the middle class by the growing

publishing industry, led by the firms of Attaingnant (Paris), Moderne

(Lyon), and Susato (Antwerp).

Chansons at the time were of two general types: imitative works

cultivated by Franco-Flemish composers, and lyric works composed

mostly by French composers. More specifically, the so-called Pari-

sian chanson (usually for three or four voices) tended to be rhythmic

and lively, charming and simple, often in alla breve time, melody-

dominated (chordal with minimal imitation), strophic, sectional, and

syllabic. Leading composers included Clément Janequin, whose

descriptive chansons often included onomatopoeic sounds, Claudin

de Sermisy, who excelled at delicate and sophisticated love songs,

Pierre Passereau, Pierre Certon, and Guillaume Costeley.

Franco-Flemish chansons, on the other hand, tended toward per-

vading imitation and dense textures. They are similar to motets of the

time except for their French secular texts, shorter length, less serious

and more tuneful character, more regular rhythms, and shorter and

70 • CHANSON SPIRITUELLE

clearer phrases. They are often through-composed, with independent,

melismatic voice lines creating subtle counterpoint. Composers

include Josquin des Prez, Pierre de la Rue [La Rue], Jean Mou-

ton, Jean Richafort, Adrian Willaert, Nicolas Gombert, Thomas

Crecquillon, Clemens non Papa, Cypriano de Rore, and Orlande

de Lassus.

CHANSON SPIRITUELLE. A French secular chanson with spiri-

tual or moralistic text. The genre was cultivated in the second half

of the 16th century, primarily by Protestant sympathizers. In many

cases, existing chansons were simply given new texts. Outstanding

examples in three and four voices were written by Claude Le Jeune

(published in 1606 after his death).

CHANT. Most commonly the term designates monophonic, unac-

companied, nonmetrical, vocal music for religious rites. See also

GREGORIAN CHANT.

CHANTICLEER. An American vocal ensemble of 12 male singers

(ranging from countertenor to bass), founded in 1978 by Louis Botto

to specialize in vocal polyphony of the Renaissance and Baroque

eras. It has since broadened its repertoire to include jazz, gospel, and

other popular styles, and its concerts regularly include new works

commissioned by the group. Through its many concerts, the full-

time, professional ensemble has become known worldwide for its

seamless choral blend.

CHAPEL ROYAL. See ENGLISH CATHEDRAL MUSIC OF THE

REFORMATION AND RESTORATION.

CHARPENTIER, MARC-ANTOINE (1643–24 FEBRUARY 1704).

French composer. During his lifetime he was overshadowed by his

politically powerful Parisian contemporary, Jean-Baptiste Lully,

and his true artistic stature was not fully recognized until the 20th

century. In his early years, he spent some time in Rome, where he

may have been taught by Giacomo Carissimi. Upon his return to

Paris, he worked for “Mademoiselle de Guise” (Marie de Lorraine),

a devout French noblewoman whose household musicians included

both vocalists and instrumentalists. For many years he worked in

association with the troupe of Molière, producing works for stage.

His growing fame led to opportunities to compose sacred works for

CHÁVEZ, CARLOS • 71

various convents, Jesuit institutions, churches, and private chapels.

For some time he served as director of music at the church of St.

Louis (the principal Jesuit church in Paris, later renamed St. Paul-St.

Louis). In 1698 he was appointed director of music at the Sainte-

Chapelle, where his duties included directing the music at all the

services, composing, and teaching the boy choristers.

Although very little of Charpentier’s music was published during

his lifetime, his manuscripts were well preserved. Most of his extant

music is sacred music; it includes 11 masses, some 140 other liturgi-

cal works (including 4 Te Deum settings), 80-plus psalm settings,

and over 200 motets, including 35 dramatic ones sometimes called

oratorios (even though they are Latin works composed for sacred

services). All these works range widely in scope and complexity:

some are intimate, others are in the grand polychoral style (e.g.,

a mass for four choirs, 20 soloists, and instruments). Charpentier’s

style is characterized by Italian lyricism, French concern for correct

declamation, and harmonic audacity.

CHATMAN, STEPHEN (28 FEBRUARY 1950– ). American-born

composer, living in Canada. A graduate of the Oberlin Conservatory

(Ohio) and the University of Michigan, he has taught at the Univer-

sity of British Columbia since 1976. Writing in an eclectic style, he

has produced many accessible choral pieces that are in wide demand

in North America. Examples include There Is Sweet Music Here, for

mixed chorus and oboe (1984) and numerous pieces for unaccom-

panied choir, among them, Elizabethan Spring (1983), Five British

Columbia Folksongs (1983), Due North (1986), Elizabethan Summer

(1988), Five Canadian Folk Songs (1995), Due West (1997), and Due

East (2006).

CHÁVEZ, CARLOS (13 JUNE 1899–2 AUGUST 1978). Mexican

composer, conductor, journalist, and teacher. Largely self-taught as a

composer, he came to the fore in 1921, just as a new political era was

beginning in the wake of the Mexican Revolution. The new govern-

ment supported cultural nationalism, and for the next half century

Chávez played a decisive role in Mexican cultural life. From 1928

to 1948 he conducted the Mexico Symphony Orchestra; from 1928

to 1933, and again in 1934, he served as director of the Mexican

National Conservatory. Throughout his career he traveled widely