Unger M.P. Historical Dictionary of Choral Music

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82 • CICONIA, JOHANNES

finalis G), and Hypomixolydian (D–D, finalis G). Later, to account

for polyphony constructed on the tonal centers of C and A, Heinrich

Glarean added four more modes in his Dodechachordon (1547): Ae-

olian (A–A, finalis A), Hypoaeolian (E–E, finalis A), Ionian (C–C,

finalis C), and Hypoionian (G–G, finalis C).

CICONIA, JOHANNES (C. 1370–JUNE OR JULY 1412). Franco-

Flemish composer and theorist, active in Italy. His extant works in-

clude Gloria and Credo mass movements, motets, and secular songs

in French and Italian.

CIFRA, ANTONIO (1584–2 OCTOBER 1629). Italian composer.

For much of his life he was director of music at Santa Casa in Loreto

(which lies northeast of Rome and has historic ties to that city). From

1623 to 1626 he was music director at San Giovanni in Laterano

(Basilica of St. John Lateran), Rome. Like other composers of the

Roman school, he tended to be conservative—in his early psalm

settings, his litanies, and especially in his masses, which employ the

imitative style of the late Renaissance and have numerous canonic

movements. Cifra’s other works show more progressive tendencies.

He may therefore be regarded as an important transitional figure be-

tween the Renaissance and Baroque styles.

A prolific composer, his extant works for vocal ensemble include

two books of masses, eight books of concertato motets for two to

four voices, polychoral compositions (which modestly embrace the

new style), and six books of madrigals for five voices (the last two

with continuo). He also published two volumes of Italian sacred

scherzi (generally light works that show the development from the

madrigal to the newer monodic style) and five volumes of secular

ones for one to four voices and continuo.

CIMAROSA, DOMENICO (17 DECEMBER 1749–11 JANUARY

1801). Italian composer. He was famous for his comic operas, which

were performed throughout Europe, being unmatched at the time for

their freshness and vigor. After studying at the music conservatory

in Loreto, he worked in Naples (as an organist at the royal chapel),

Venice (as director of the Ospedaletto [see OSPEDALE] conserva-

tory), St. Petersburg (as director of music at the chapel at the court

of Catherine II), and Vienna (as director of music at the imperial

court chapel of Leopold II). He was imprisoned briefly during the

CLAUSULA • 83

French Revolutionary Wars. In addition to about 60 extant operas,

he left behind approximately half a dozen oratorios, a dozen motets,

approximately 20 masses, some secular cantatas, and a few other

secular works for chorus.

CLARKE, JEREMIAH (C. 1674–1 DECEMBER 1707). English

composer and organist; organist at St. Paul’s Cathedral from 1699;

joint organist with William Croft at the Chapel Royal from 1704,

succeeding John Blow. He is known chiefly for his church music,

which consists of 3 partial services and 20 anthems (almost all of

them of the “verse” type). Some of the anthems celebrate important

events of the time; for example, the full anthem Praise the Lord, O

Jerusalem, which was performed at the coronation of Queen Anne in

1702. Clarke also wrote at least 10 court odes, music for plays, many

songs and catches, and pieces for harpsichord. Most famous now is

the so-called Trumpet Voluntary, which became well-loved in an ar-

rangement for trumpet, organ, and drums made by Charles Wood,

who ascribed the original to Henry Purcell.

CLAUSEN, RENÉ (17 APRIL 1953– ). American choral conduc-

tor and composer. Since 1986 he has taught at Concordia College,

Moorhead, Minnesota, where he conducts The Concordia Choir, an

ensemble of national stature. In 1998 he founded the René Clausen

Choral School, now held each summer. He has described his own

compositional style as “varied and eclectic.” His many choral com-

positions, which are widely performed in the United States by choirs

of all types, range in difficulty and length; typically they are emotion-

ally evocative, with lush, quasi-impressionistic harmonies. He is in

regular demand as a commissioned composer, guest conductor, and

clinician.

CLAUSULA. The term was used in various ways during the Medieval

period, but is now used in its formal sense to designate passages in

discant style (employing the standardized rhythmic modes), appearing

in polyphonic chant settings at Notre Dame from about 1200, which

served as replacements for certain sections of preexisting melismatic

organum. The practice of writing such clausulae was reported by

Anonymous IV, a 13th-century English theorist, and examples are

found in works by Leoninus and Perotinus preserved in a volume

called the Magnus liber. In an attempt to modernize this collection,

84 • CLEMENS NON PAPA, JACOBUS

hundreds of clausulae were composed as substitutes for old-fashioned

passages, providing an avenue for compositional experimentation.

Some of Perotinus’s clausulae expanded the texture to three or even

four voices. Notated separately, clausulae tended to become indepen-

dent compositions. When new words were added to the upper line(s),

the Notre Dame motet was born.

CLEMENS NON PAPA, JACOBUS [CLEMENT, JACOB] (BORN

C. 1510–15; DIED 1555/56). Franco-Flemish composer. Although

many details of his life are uncertain, it is clear that he was a prolific

composer. His extant works include 15 masses for four or five voices

(almost all of them parody settings, some of them based on his own

motets and chansons), more than 230 motets (almost all for four

or five voices), 15 Magnificats (all for four voices), more than 150

Dutch psalm settings (for three voices, on metric texts with associ-

ated predetermined tunes that Clemens used as cantus firmi in one

or another of the voices), and more than 100 secular works, among

them, about 90 chansons for three to six voices.

Clemens’s writing (particularly in the masses and motets) typically

consists of dense imitative counterpoint. Some passages are particu-

larly chromatic. His music was widely disseminated after his death

and presumably had considerable influence on other composers.

Along with Nicolas Gombert, Thomas Crecquillon, and Adrian

Willaert, he was instrumental in establishing pervading imitation as

the basic contrapuntal technique of the 1500s.

CLEOBURY, STEPHEN. See KING’S COLLEGE CHOIR.

CLERAMBAULT, LOUIS NICOLAS (19 DECEMBER 1676–26

OCTOBER 1749). French composer and organist, famous espe-

cially for his French solo cantatas, which fused French and Italian

styles. His choral works include many motets, some of them for the

Maison Royale de Saint-Cyr, a school for girls near Versailles, where

Clerambault held a position as organist and teacher.

COLERIDGE-TAYLOR, SAMUEL (15 AUGUST 1875–1 SEP-

TEMBER 1912). English composer and conductor. The son of a

Sierra Leone physician, he was raised by his English mother after his

father returned to Africa. Shortly after studies with Charles Villiers

Stanford at the Royal College of Music, he achieved international

recognition with the cantata Hiawatha’s Wedding Feast (1898), a

COMPÈRE, LOYSET • 85

work whose exotic orientation was much in vogue at the time. It

was followed by The Death of Minnehaha (1899) and Hiawatha’s

Departure (1900). The success of these compositions led to many

festival commissions. Subsequent works included The Blind Girl

of Castél-Cuillé (1901), Meg Blane (1902), The Atonement (1903),

Five Choral Ballads (1905), Kubla Khan (1906), “Bon-Bon” Suite

(1909), Endymion’s Dream (1910), and A Tale of Old Japan (1911).

However, none of them were as successful as the Hiawatha trilogy.

He also wrote numerous partsongs and choruses; among them is Sea

Drift, a choral rhapsody for eight voices (1908).

A fine conductor, Coleridge-Taylor directed the Handel Society

(from 1904 until his death), the Westmorland Festival (1901–4),

and many choral and orchestral societies. He made three trips to the

United States, where he was known as the “black Mahler.”

COLLEGIUM MUSICUM. Originating in 16th-century Germany,

the term referred to an organization of music enthusiasts who gave

concerts in informal settings such as coffeehouses, public gardens,

or the homes of noble patrons. Leipzig had several important student

collegia musica, the most famous of which were those established

by Georg Philipp Telemann (1702) and Johann Friedrich Fasch

(1708). During the 18th century the collegium musicum evolved into

the public concert (with its paying audience), and after 1750 the term

was gradually abandoned. However, as interest in historical perfor-

mance rose after 1900, the term was revived, especially in academic

contexts.

COMPÈRE, LOYSET (C. 1445–16 AUGUST 1518). French com-

poser. A contemporary of Josquin des Prez, he was instrumental in

bringing the light Italian style to France. His works were disseminated

widely in print. A native of Hainaut (a historical region in the Low

Countries, now a province in southwestern Belgium), he worked for

a short time at the court of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, the Duke of Mi-

lan, and then for much of the rest of his career at the French court of

Charles VIII, whom he accompanied on the French invasion of Italy

in 1494. He later held church positions in Cambrai and Douai.

Compère is known primarily for his chansons and his motets,

which vary in style. Some of his chansons are of the older three-voice

Burgundian type. Others borrow the newer style of the four-voice

Italian frottola (characterized by a light text, syllabic declamation,

86 • CONCENTUS MUSICUS WIEN

and chordal texture), while still others resemble the three-voice

motets of the Medieval era, combining a Latin cantus firmus with

two upper voices carrying a French text. His motets, too, show an

evolving style. Some are of the older style, in which a cantus firmus

provides structure; others are free motets: without cantus firmus,

and written in the newer Italian, text-influenced style, in which each

phrase of text is presented in turn, in a variety of textures. His other

extant works include two complete masses, and four complete Mag-

nificats.

CONCENTUS MUSICUS WIEN. See HARNONCOURT, NIKO-

LAUS.

CONCERT SPIRITUEL. A Parisian series of public concerts, one of

the first in existence. It was founded in 1725 to present a mix of sa-

cred choral pieces and virtuosic instrumental works during Lent and

religious holidays when theatrical establishments were closed. Later

programs included secular French works as well. For many years the

concerts occurred in the Salle des Cent Suisses (Hall of the Hundred

Swiss Guards) in the Tuileries Palace. The original series ended in

1790 with the French Revolution. After 1805 concerts of the same

name were given in various European cities.

CONCERTANTE. In the Baroque era it was more or less synonymous

with concertato, signifying groups of performers (often instruments

and vocalists) performing together in a contrasting way—especially

soloists versus tutti. In this way it is closely related to the concerto.

CONCERTATO STYLE, CONCERTED STYLE. A Baroque style

that implied the interaction of diverse instrumental and vocal forces

and contrasting textures. See also CONCERTANTE; CONCERTO.

CONCERTO (VOCAL CONCERTO). In the 1600s the term indi-

cated a vocal piece accompanied by instruments. See also SACRED

CONCERTO.

CONCITATO [STILE CONCITATO]. “Agitated” style invented (or

“rediscovered”) by Claudio Monteverdi for his eighth book of mad-

rigals (Madrigali guerrieri ed amorosi, 1638). It is characterized in

particular by a “combat motive” of repeated 16th notes. Later exam-

ples may be found in Johann Sebastian Bach’s St. Matthew Passion

(“Sind Blitze, sind Donner”) and in George Frideric Handel’s Dixit

Dominus (“implebit ruinas . . . conquassabit capita”).

COOKE, HENRY • 87

CONDUCTUS. A medieval Latin song in measured rhythm, usually

with sacred text. It may have been used to accompany processional

movement in the liturgy. In the late 12th and early 13th century, Pari-

sian composers of the so-called Notre Dame School cultivated poly-

phonic settings. Distinguishing characteristics include a newly com-

posed tenor, and a similarity of rhythmic and melodic material among

voices. Some conducti are homorhythmic, with syllabic text-setting

throughout. The majority, however, are embellished with melismatic

passages called caudae (singular: cauda, Latin for “tail”). During the

13th century, the conductus was superseded by the motet.

CONSORT SONG. A song for voice(s) accompanied by a consort of

viols in 16th- and 17th-century England.

CONTINUO. See BASSO CONTINUO.

CONTRAFACTUM (PL. CONTRAFACTA). A vocal piece in

which the original text has been replaced by a new one with little if

any change to the music—usually a sacred text replacing a secular

one. Such adaptation of secular pieces for sacred use was especially

common in the 15th and 16th centuries. For example, Italian frottole

were turned into laude. In Protestant areas, chansons or other secular

pieces were given sacred texts so that they could be used as congre-

gational songs, and Catholic pieces were given new words to fit Prot-

estant theology. During the Baroque era, composers often reworked

secular pieces for sacred use, carefully retaining the basic emotional

tone (affect) of the original. Because such adaptations involved more

than simply changing the text, they are usually called parodies.

CONTRAPUNTAL. See COUNTERPOINT.

CONTRAPUNTIST. One who writes counterpoint.

COOKE, ARNOLD (4 NOVEMBER 1906–13 AUGUST 2005).

English composer who studied with Paul Hindemith and wrote in

a contrapuntal style that avoided serialism. Choral works include

Holderneth, for Bar., SATB, and orch. (1934); Ode on St. Cecilia’s

Day, for S, T, B, SATB, orch., and org. (1964); A Jacobean Suite, for

SATB (1976); as well as partsongs and anthems.

COOKE, HENRY (C. 1615–13 JULY 1672). English singer, choir

trainer, and composer. Known as Captain Henry Cooke because of his

rank in the Royalist forces during the Civil War, Cooke reestablished

88 • COPLAND, AARON

the choir of the Chapel Royal in England after the Restoration (1660).

As Master of the Children he conscripted young choristers, including

Pelham Humfrey, Michael Wise, John Blow, Thomas Tudway, and

William Turner, all of whom became leaders of the next generation

of musicians. Known as an excellent bass singer in the Italian manner,

Cooke brought the choir to perfection within a decade. Of his composi-

tions about a dozen anthems survive, almost all of them verse anthems

(most of these with instrumental preludes and ritornellos). They dem-

onstrate Italian influence in their harmonies, and show Cooke’s fond-

ness for full sonorities in which voices are divided into multiple parts.

COPLAND, AARON (14 NOVEMBER 1900–2 DECEMBER 1990).

American composer, writer, pianist, lecturer, and conductor. The son

of Jewish immigrants from Russia, he developed his musical skills

through private studies in the United States (with Rubin Goldmark)

and in France (with Nadia Boulanger), by attending many concert,

opera, and ballet performances, and by studying the scores of others.

Instead of taking a university teaching position he supported himself

with composition, organizing concerts, conducting, writing, and

lecturing. Public acceptance came slowly at first. However, by the

late 1940s, with support from leading musicians, patrons, and critics,

he had come to be regarded as the foremost composer in the United

States. A strong musical nationalist who championed American mu-

sic—incorporating jazz and folk elements into his compositions to

give them a uniquely American voice, he served as a mentor to many

younger American composers (especially Leonard Bernstein), and

his influence continued to grow both at home and abroad.

Copland’s choral works, which are largely overshadowed by his

instrumental compositions (especially the ballets, operas, orchestral

music, and music for film), include Four Motets (on biblical texts),

for SATB (1921); An Immorality, for S, SSA, and pf. (1925); Lark,

for B and SATB (1938); Las agachadas (The Shake-Down Song), for

SSAATTBB (1942); two choruses on texts by Ira Gershwin from the

1943 film The North Star: Song of the Guerrillas, for Bar., TTBB,

and pf., and the Younger Generation, for SATB and pf.; In the Be-

ginning, for Mez. and SATB (1947); two popular choruses from the

opera The Tender Land: Stomp Your Foot, for SATB with 4-hand

piano (1943), and The Promise of Living, for SATBB/TTBB with 4-

hand piano (1954), both arranged for chorus and orchestra in 1954; In

CORNELIUS, PETER • 89

the Beginning, for Mez., and SATB (1947); and Canticle of Freedom

(1955). See also FINE, IRVING.

CORI SPEZZATI [IT. “SPLIT CHOIRS”]. See POLYCHORAL

STYLE.

CORIGLIANO, JOHN (16 FEBRUARY 1938– ). American com-

poser. The son of a former concertmaster of the New York Philhar-

monic, he has achieved widespread recognition for his compositions.

Among his many awards and honors are a Guggenheim Fellowship,

Grammy awards, the Pulitzer Prize, and an Academy Award. His

strong commitment to communication combined with a love for the

theatrical, his collaborative forays into such avenues as film scoring,

and his gift for orchestration and lyricism have resulted in works with

broad appeal even while utilizing a wide range of complex musical

materials and techniques. Choral works include the choral symphony

A Dylan Thomas Trilogy (1960–76); Fern Hill, for Mez., SATB, and

orch./pf.; Poem on his Birthday, for Bar., SATB, and orch./pf.; What

I Expected Was . . . , for SATB, brass, and perc. (1962); Psalm VIII,

for SATB and org. (1976); Of Rage and Remembrance (a memorial

to the victims of AIDS), for Tr., Mez., TTBB, str., and perc. (1991);

Amen, for 2 SATB (1994); Liebeslied, for SATB and pf. 4 hands

(1996); Salute, for SATB and 24 kazoos (2005); and some works for

single voice rearranged for choir, among others.

CORNELIUS, PETER (24 DECEMBER 1824–26 OCTOBER 1874).

German composer, poet, writer on music, and translator, best known

for the comic opera Der Barbier von Bagdad. He came from a literary

and acting family, and throughout his life he was equally interested

in poetry and music. After private studies in composition in Berlin

(where he met Felix Mendelssohn), he joined Franz Liszt’s Weimar

circle in 1853, where he composed, translated works for Liszt and

Hector Berlioz, and wrote in support of the “New German School.”

In 1858 Liszt conducted the premiere of his opera Der Barbier von

Bagdad. Due to a hostile demonstration encouraged by the theater

director, the performance was a failure, leading to Liszt’s resignation

from the opera, and ultimately to both men’s departure from Weimar.

In 1859 Cornelius moved to Vienna, where he developed a friendship

with Richard Wagner, assisting him in various ways and continuing

to compose and to work as a translator. In 1864 he followed Wagner

90 • CORNYSH, WILLIAM

to Munich, where he taught harmony and rhetoric at the Royal School

of Music, while continuing to compose.

Despite his support of the progressive music of Liszt and Wagner,

Cornelius was no blind follower but aimed for a fair-minded and

individual response, both in his musical composition and in his theo-

retical writing. His dual interest in literature and music is reflected

not only in his operas but also in some 80 songs (on texts of his own)

and in his choral works, which include some 15 compositions (or sets

of compositions) for male chorus and another 26 for mixed chorus.

Most are on nonreligious texts. Of the sacred works, most set Latin

texts (despite his Lutheran faith), and are in a conservative style,

having been written before he went to Weimar. Noteworthy later

works include the Requiem (Seele, vergiss sie nicht), for SSATBB

(1863, rev. 1870–72, written in memory of the poet Friedrich Hebbel

using the latter’s poem); Drei Psalmlieder, op. 13, for SATB (1872,

rev. 1873), modeled after keyboard pieces by Johann Sebastian

Bach; the chromatic Drei Männerchöre, op. 12, for TTBB, TTBB

(1872–73); and Reiterlied, op. 17, for SATB (1873), modeled after a

Franz Schubert march.

CORNYSH, WILLIAM (DIED 1523). English composer, poet, play-

wright, and actor. He served as a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal,

where he became Master of the Children in 1509, a position he held

until his death. He was also heavily involved in theatrical entertain-

ments at the royal court. His extant works for vocal ensemble include

16 secular partsongs for three and four voices. Of the few sacred

works attributed to him (or to another man of the same name), five

appear in the Eton Choirbook, an important source of Latin sacred

music in England, compiled just before 1500.

CORTECCIA, FRANCESCO (27 JULY 1502–7 JUNE 1571). Ital-

ian composer and organist. Active at the court of Duke Cosimo de’

Medici in Florence, he published three collections of madrigals (the

first two volumes for four voices, the third volume for five and six

voices). He also published two books each of responsories (for three

to five voices) and motets (for five and six voices), which include

two motet Passions.

COSTELEY, GUILLAUME (C. 1530–28 JANUARY 1606). French

composer. For much of his life he served as composer to the court of

COURAUD, MARCEL • 91

Charles IX. He was a founding member of the Académie de Poésie et

de Musique (chartered by the king in 1570), which met at the home

of the poet Jean-Antoine de Baïf for the purpose of reviving Classical

Greek and Roman poetry and music. Costeley was most famous for

the 100 chansons (almost all for four voices) and 3 motets (for three

to five voices) that appeared in a large publication of 1570 entitled

Musique de Guillaume Costeley . . . . He is also noteworthy for his

experimentation with microtonal composition. His works show a

preference for unusual harmonic and melodic intervals (documented

by the careful notation of accidentals) and counterpoint that appears

to be harmonically conceived.

COUNTERPOINT (ADJ. CONTRAPUNTAL). A composition or

passage of music comprised of multiple simultaneous melodic parts.

In such a piece the melodic interaction among the lines is more sig-

nificant than the chords that result—it is “horizontally conceived.”

While counterpoint and polyphony are more or less synonymous,

the former term is generally used for music after 1600, the latter one

for music before that date. After 1600, as composers concentrated

increasingly on harmonic considerations, counterpoint became less

important as an organizing principle. See also CANON; CANTUS

FIRMUS; FUGUE; POINTS OF IMITATION; ROUND.

COUPERIN, FRANÇOIS (10 NOVEMBER 1668–11 SEPTEMBER

1733). French composer, organist, and harpsichordist. He succeeded

his father as organist at St. Gervais Church in Paris, and in 1693 he

commenced additional service as an organist at the court of Louis

XIV. He also became active as a court composer, and as a teacher of

harpsichord and organ. His harpsichord music, much of it published

during his lifetime, was widely known abroad. His vocal music was

presumably composed for the royal court and chapel. Unfortunately

the motets for grand choeur are lost. The other vocal ensemble music

is for soloists—petits motets, versets, and Leçons de tenébres (Lam-

entations for Tenebrae services), and a few canonic pieces.

COURAUD, MARCEL (20 OCTOBER 1912–14 SEPTEMBER

1986). French conductor. In 1945 he founded the Marcel Couraud

Vocal Ensemble, which made several recordings before disbanding

in 1954. In 1967 he became director of the choirs at the Office de Ra-

diodiffusion Télévision Française (ORTF), where he organized three