Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2008. - 276 p.
There is a scarcity of textbooks on insect toxicology, and most of these books are rather outdated. This book is addressed to provide the student of entomology, crop protection, plant medicine, and related agricultural disciplines with a general knowledge of insecticides. The book also brings together the most current knowledge on insecticide action and use. The eleven chapters are conceed with insecticide formulation, classification, bioassay, mode of action, biotransformations in living organisms, resistance in insects, fate in the environment, and the laws that regulate their use. Because we are dealing with chemical compounds and their interaction with living organisms, my approach to most of these subjects is through chemical and biochemical principles. With the advent of molecular biology, numerous new findings have been reported in the areas of insecticide action and resistance mechanisms at the gene level. Although these subjects are not covered in minute detail, the discussions are thorough enough that the serious reader can continue his or her study with more advanced literature.
Contents
Preface
About the Author
The Need for Pesticides and Their Patte of Use
Introduction
The Need for Pesticides
Food Production
World Health Status
Patte of Use
Pesticide Economics
References
The Formulation of Pesticides
Introduction
Types of Formulation
Dusts
Wettable Powders (WPs)
Emulsifiable Concentrates (ECs)
Suspendable Concentrates (SCs) or Flowables
Water-Soluble Powders (SPs)
Solutions
Granules
Water-Dispersible Granules (WGs)
Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV) Formulations
Aerosols
Controlled Release (CR) Formulations
Baits
The Nonpesticidal Ingredients of Formulations
Solvents
Diluents
Surfactants
Pesticide Application Equipment
References
Pesticide Laws and Regulations
Introduction
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
Registration of Pesticides
Classification of Pesticides and Certification of Applicators
Other Provisions of FIFRA
Experimental Use Permits
Review and Suspension
Registration of Establishments
Unlawful Acts
Penalties
Rights to Data
Special Review
Pesticide Categories
The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Tolerance
The Basis for Tolerance
The Food Quality Protection Act
State Laws
Enforcement
References
The Classification of Insecticides
Introduction
Classification of Insecticides
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
DDT Group
Chlorinated Cyclic Compounds
Organophosphates
Phosphates
Phosphorothioates
Phosphorodithioates
Phosphorothiolates
Phosphonates
Phosphoramidates
Carbamates
Pyrethroids
Botanical Insecticides
Nicotine
Rotenone
Azadirachtin
Sabadilla
Ryania
Insect Growth Regulators
Juvenoids (Juvenile Hormone Mimics)
Benzoylphenylureas (acylureas)
Diacylhydrazines
Triazines
Thiadiazines
Neonicotinoids
Formamidines
Microbial Insecticides
Bacillus thuringiensis
Abamectin
Spinosad
Fumigants
Inorganic Insecticides
Miscellaneous Insecticide Classes
Amidinohydrazones
Phenylpyrazoles
Pyrazoles
Pyrroles
Oxadiazines
Sulfonamides
Pyridazinones
Nereistoxin Analogs
Pyridine Azomethines
Pyrimidinamines
Trifluoromethylnicotinamides
Benzenedicarboxamides (Phthalic Acid Diamides)
Dichloropropenyl Ethers
Tetronic Acids
Tetramic Acids
Anthranilic Diamides
Pesticidal Oils and Soaps
Acaricides
Organosulfurs
Inorganics
Organotins
Pyrazoles
Quinazolines
Methoxyacrylates
Naphthoquinones
Tetronic Acids
Tetrazines
Oxazoles
Carbazates (Hydrazine Carboxylic Acid Derivatives)
Benzoylacetonitriles
Trifluoromethanesulfonanilides
Bridged Diphenyls
References
Evaluation of Toxicity
Introduction
Testing Procedures
Tests with Insects
Topical Application
Injection MethodDipping Method
Contact Method (Residual Exposure Method)
Fumigation Method
Feeding Method
Tests with Higher Animals
Acute Toxicity Tests
Subacute Toxicity and Chronic Toxicity Tests
Probit Analysis
Source of Variability in Dose-Response Tests
Age
Sex
Rearing Temperature
Food Supply
Population Density
Illumination
The Use of Log Dosage-Probit (LDP) Lines
References
Appendix : An example of probit analysis using the SAS system
The Uptake of Insecticides
Introduction
Penetration of Insecticides through the Insect Cuticle
The Structure of Insect Cuticle
Movement of Insecticides through the Cuticle
Site of Entry
Factors Affecting Cuticular Penetration Rates
Effect of Solvent
Polarity of Insecticides
Cuticular Composition
Metabolism of Insecticides in the Cuticle
Entry via the Mouth
Uptake via the Spiracles
References
The Mode of Action of Insecticides
Introduction
Insecticides Affecting Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels
Background
The Mode of Action of the DDT Group, Pyrethroids, Indoxacarb,
and Sabadilla
Insecticides Affecting Calcium Channels
Insecticides Inhibiting Acetylcholinesterase
Background
The Mode of Action of Organophosphate and Carbamate Insecticides
Insecticides Interfering with GABA-Gated Chloride Channels
Insecticides that Bind to Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
Insecticides Affecting Octopamine Receptors
Insecticides Interfering with Respiration
Inhibitors of the Electron Transport System
Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Insecticides Acting as Alimentary Toxins
Insecticides Affecting Chitin Biosynthesis or Cuticle Sclerotization
Insecticides Acting as Juvenile Hormone Mimics
Insecticides Acting as Ecdysone Agonists or Blocking Molting Hormone
Activity
Insecticides Abrading or Disrupting Insect Cuticle
The Mode of Action of Acaricides
Acaricides Interfering with Respiration
Acaricides Interfering with Growth and Development
Acaricides Acting as Neurotoxins
References
Principles of Pesticide Metabolism
Introduction
Phase I Reactions
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Reduction
Phase II Reactions
Glucose Conjugation
Glucuronic Acid Conjugation
Sulfate Conjugation
Phosphate Conjugation
Amino Acid Conjugation
Glutathione Conjugation
Metabolic Pathways of Selected Insecticides
Carbamates
Organophosphates
Pyrethroids
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Benzoylphenylureas
Juvenoids
Neonicotinoids
References
Species Differences and Other Phenomena Associated with the Metabolism of Xenobiotics
Introduction
Species Differences in Detoxification Enzyme Activity
Examples of Differences
Evolution of Species Differences in Detoxification
Effect of Age and Sex on Enzyme Activity
The Specificity of Detoxification Enzymes
Selective Toxicity
Synergism and Antagonism
Enzyme Induction
Induction of Detoxification Enzymes
Cytochrome P Monooxygenases
Glutathione S-Transferases
Hydrolases and Reductases
Enzyme Induction as Detoxification Mechanism
Insecticide Resistance
References
Insecticide Resistance
Introduction
The Genetics of Resistance
Preadaptation
Gene Frequency
Dominance and Number of Genes
Loss of Resistance
Mechanisms of Resistance
Behavioral Resistance
Physiological Resistance
Reduced Penetration
Target Site Insensitivity
Increased Detoxification
Interaction Phenomena
Cross-Resistance and Multiple Resistance
The Interaction of Resistance Factors
Rate of Development of Resistance
Dominance of R Alleles
Generation Tuover
Population Mobility
Persistence of Pesticide Residues
Selection Pressure
Management of Resistance
Reducing Resistance Gene Frequency
The Use of Insecticide Mixtures and Rotations
The Use of Insecticide Synergists
The Use of New Pesticides
The Use of Resistant Predators and Parasites
Field Monitoring
The Use of Transgenic Crops
References
Pesticides in the Environment
Introduction
Persistence of Pesticides in Soil
Adsorptive Forces
Chemical Bonding
Physical Binding
Hydrogen Bonding
Factors Influencing Persistence of Pesticides in Soil
Soil Type
Nature of the Pesticide
Soil Moisture
Soil pH
Soil Temperature
Microbial Degradation
Photodegradation of Pesticides
Hydrolysis
Dechlorination
Oxidation
Isomerization (Intramolecular Rearrangement Process)
Pesticides and the Food Chain
Lipid Solubility of Pesticides
Metabolic Activity
Feeding Habits
Behavior and Ecological Niche
Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
Eggshell Thinning in Birds
Endocrine Disruption in Alligators
Biomarkers as Indicators of Pesticide Pollution
References
Index
There is a scarcity of textbooks on insect toxicology, and most of these books are rather outdated. This book is addressed to provide the student of entomology, crop protection, plant medicine, and related agricultural disciplines with a general knowledge of insecticides. The book also brings together the most current knowledge on insecticide action and use. The eleven chapters are conceed with insecticide formulation, classification, bioassay, mode of action, biotransformations in living organisms, resistance in insects, fate in the environment, and the laws that regulate their use. Because we are dealing with chemical compounds and their interaction with living organisms, my approach to most of these subjects is through chemical and biochemical principles. With the advent of molecular biology, numerous new findings have been reported in the areas of insecticide action and resistance mechanisms at the gene level. Although these subjects are not covered in minute detail, the discussions are thorough enough that the serious reader can continue his or her study with more advanced literature.
Contents
Preface
About the Author
The Need for Pesticides and Their Patte of Use
Introduction
The Need for Pesticides
Food Production
World Health Status
Patte of Use
Pesticide Economics
References
The Formulation of Pesticides
Introduction
Types of Formulation
Dusts
Wettable Powders (WPs)
Emulsifiable Concentrates (ECs)
Suspendable Concentrates (SCs) or Flowables
Water-Soluble Powders (SPs)
Solutions
Granules
Water-Dispersible Granules (WGs)
Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV) Formulations
Aerosols
Controlled Release (CR) Formulations
Baits
The Nonpesticidal Ingredients of Formulations
Solvents
Diluents
Surfactants
Pesticide Application Equipment
References
Pesticide Laws and Regulations
Introduction
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
Registration of Pesticides
Classification of Pesticides and Certification of Applicators
Other Provisions of FIFRA
Experimental Use Permits
Review and Suspension
Registration of Establishments
Unlawful Acts
Penalties
Rights to Data
Special Review
Pesticide Categories
The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Tolerance
The Basis for Tolerance
The Food Quality Protection Act
State Laws
Enforcement
References
The Classification of Insecticides
Introduction
Classification of Insecticides
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
DDT Group
Chlorinated Cyclic Compounds
Organophosphates
Phosphates
Phosphorothioates
Phosphorodithioates
Phosphorothiolates
Phosphonates
Phosphoramidates
Carbamates
Pyrethroids
Botanical Insecticides
Nicotine
Rotenone
Azadirachtin
Sabadilla
Ryania
Insect Growth Regulators
Juvenoids (Juvenile Hormone Mimics)
Benzoylphenylureas (acylureas)
Diacylhydrazines
Triazines
Thiadiazines
Neonicotinoids
Formamidines
Microbial Insecticides
Bacillus thuringiensis
Abamectin
Spinosad
Fumigants
Inorganic Insecticides
Miscellaneous Insecticide Classes
Amidinohydrazones
Phenylpyrazoles
Pyrazoles
Pyrroles
Oxadiazines
Sulfonamides
Pyridazinones
Nereistoxin Analogs
Pyridine Azomethines
Pyrimidinamines
Trifluoromethylnicotinamides
Benzenedicarboxamides (Phthalic Acid Diamides)
Dichloropropenyl Ethers
Tetronic Acids
Tetramic Acids
Anthranilic Diamides
Pesticidal Oils and Soaps
Acaricides
Organosulfurs
Inorganics
Organotins
Pyrazoles
Quinazolines
Methoxyacrylates
Naphthoquinones
Tetronic Acids
Tetrazines
Oxazoles
Carbazates (Hydrazine Carboxylic Acid Derivatives)
Benzoylacetonitriles
Trifluoromethanesulfonanilides
Bridged Diphenyls
References
Evaluation of Toxicity
Introduction
Testing Procedures
Tests with Insects
Topical Application
Injection MethodDipping Method
Contact Method (Residual Exposure Method)
Fumigation Method
Feeding Method
Tests with Higher Animals
Acute Toxicity Tests
Subacute Toxicity and Chronic Toxicity Tests
Probit Analysis
Source of Variability in Dose-Response Tests
Age
Sex
Rearing Temperature
Food Supply
Population Density
Illumination
The Use of Log Dosage-Probit (LDP) Lines
References
Appendix : An example of probit analysis using the SAS system
The Uptake of Insecticides
Introduction
Penetration of Insecticides through the Insect Cuticle
The Structure of Insect Cuticle
Movement of Insecticides through the Cuticle
Site of Entry
Factors Affecting Cuticular Penetration Rates
Effect of Solvent
Polarity of Insecticides
Cuticular Composition
Metabolism of Insecticides in the Cuticle
Entry via the Mouth
Uptake via the Spiracles
References
The Mode of Action of Insecticides
Introduction
Insecticides Affecting Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels
Background
The Mode of Action of the DDT Group, Pyrethroids, Indoxacarb,
and Sabadilla
Insecticides Affecting Calcium Channels
Insecticides Inhibiting Acetylcholinesterase
Background
The Mode of Action of Organophosphate and Carbamate Insecticides
Insecticides Interfering with GABA-Gated Chloride Channels
Insecticides that Bind to Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
Insecticides Affecting Octopamine Receptors
Insecticides Interfering with Respiration
Inhibitors of the Electron Transport System
Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Insecticides Acting as Alimentary Toxins
Insecticides Affecting Chitin Biosynthesis or Cuticle Sclerotization
Insecticides Acting as Juvenile Hormone Mimics
Insecticides Acting as Ecdysone Agonists or Blocking Molting Hormone
Activity
Insecticides Abrading or Disrupting Insect Cuticle
The Mode of Action of Acaricides
Acaricides Interfering with Respiration
Acaricides Interfering with Growth and Development
Acaricides Acting as Neurotoxins
References
Principles of Pesticide Metabolism
Introduction
Phase I Reactions
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Reduction
Phase II Reactions
Glucose Conjugation
Glucuronic Acid Conjugation
Sulfate Conjugation
Phosphate Conjugation
Amino Acid Conjugation
Glutathione Conjugation
Metabolic Pathways of Selected Insecticides
Carbamates
Organophosphates
Pyrethroids
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Benzoylphenylureas
Juvenoids
Neonicotinoids
References
Species Differences and Other Phenomena Associated with the Metabolism of Xenobiotics
Introduction
Species Differences in Detoxification Enzyme Activity
Examples of Differences
Evolution of Species Differences in Detoxification
Effect of Age and Sex on Enzyme Activity
The Specificity of Detoxification Enzymes
Selective Toxicity
Synergism and Antagonism
Enzyme Induction
Induction of Detoxification Enzymes
Cytochrome P Monooxygenases
Glutathione S-Transferases
Hydrolases and Reductases
Enzyme Induction as Detoxification Mechanism
Insecticide Resistance
References
Insecticide Resistance
Introduction
The Genetics of Resistance
Preadaptation
Gene Frequency
Dominance and Number of Genes
Loss of Resistance
Mechanisms of Resistance
Behavioral Resistance
Physiological Resistance
Reduced Penetration
Target Site Insensitivity
Increased Detoxification
Interaction Phenomena
Cross-Resistance and Multiple Resistance
The Interaction of Resistance Factors
Rate of Development of Resistance
Dominance of R Alleles
Generation Tuover
Population Mobility
Persistence of Pesticide Residues
Selection Pressure
Management of Resistance
Reducing Resistance Gene Frequency
The Use of Insecticide Mixtures and Rotations
The Use of Insecticide Synergists
The Use of New Pesticides
The Use of Resistant Predators and Parasites
Field Monitoring
The Use of Transgenic Crops
References
Pesticides in the Environment
Introduction
Persistence of Pesticides in Soil
Adsorptive Forces
Chemical Bonding
Physical Binding
Hydrogen Bonding
Factors Influencing Persistence of Pesticides in Soil
Soil Type
Nature of the Pesticide
Soil Moisture
Soil pH
Soil Temperature
Microbial Degradation
Photodegradation of Pesticides
Hydrolysis
Dechlorination
Oxidation
Isomerization (Intramolecular Rearrangement Process)
Pesticides and the Food Chain
Lipid Solubility of Pesticides
Metabolic Activity
Feeding Habits
Behavior and Ecological Niche
Sublethal Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
Eggshell Thinning in Birds
Endocrine Disruption in Alligators
Biomarkers as Indicators of Pesticide Pollution
References
Index