Attokaran M. Natural Food Flavors and Colorants

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76 Individual Flavors and Colorants

Essential Oil

On steam distillation, dried bay leaves give 1 – 3% essential oil. It is a light yellow

mobile liquid with characteristic aromatic and spicy aroma. It has a eucalyptus - like

odor due to the cineole content. Lawrence (1980) found that the yield of bay leaf oil

can be up to 3%. Bay leaf oil from different parts of Turkey shows a high content of

1,8 - cineole, sabinene, and α - terpinyl acetate. In one case, as much as 60% cineole has

been obtained. It also has lower levels of α - pinene, α - phellandrene, and trans - β -

osimen (Sangun et al. 2007 ). Glycosidically bound volatile compounds have been

investigated (Kilic et al. 2005 ). The aglycones found are benzyl alcohol, linalool diols,

1,8 - cineole and its derivatives, sobrerols, and menthadien - 8 - ols.

Earlier investigations have been well covered by Prakash (1990) . Major constitu-

ents reported are δ - terpinene, terpinolene, cineole, terpeniol, geraniol, and their ace-

tates. Recent publications of P. racemosa are well reviewed by Lawrence (2007) . This

includes studies wherein 1,8 - cineole, terpinen - 4 - ol, methyl eugenol, thymol, and

methyl chavicol have been prominent components in various samples. Lawrence

(2008) has also compiled results under laurel leaf oil.

According to the FCC, laurel leaf oil ( Laurus nobilis ) occurs as a light yellow liquid

with an aromatic, spicy odor. It is soluble in most ﬁ xed oils, and it is soluble with

cloudiness in mineral oil and in propylene glycol. It is insoluble in glycerin.

Physical characteristics for laurel leaf oil as deﬁ ned by the FCC are as

follows.

Optical rotation − 10 to − 19 °

Refractive index 1.465 – 1.470 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 0.905 – 0.929

Solubility 1 mL dissolves in 1 mL 80% alcohol and remains in solution

on dilution to 10 mL

Oleoresin

Ground dry bay leaf, on extraction with hexane, gives an oleoresin with a yield

between 3% and 4%. The volatile oil content varies between 15% and 20% v/w. It is

usual to dilute to a speciﬁ ed volatile oil content, so that it is easier to handle. The

product is a dark green viscous liquid with rich aroma dominated by a cineole note.

It has spicy ﬂ avor with mild bitterness.

Uses

The bay leaf is used in a wide range of meat, seafood, and vegetable dishes in

European and North American cuisine. It is also an ingredient of elite French dishes

and Indian biryani . In processed foods, extractives like oil and oleoresin will be very

convenient to give a standardized ﬂ avor. Extractives can be used in soup powders,

dressings, and sauces. The oil is useful in beverages, toiletries, scented candles, and

as a ﬂ avor in medical preparations.

20 Bay Leaf (Laurel) 77

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

L. nobilis

Bay leaf oil 2125 8007 - 48 - 5 182.20 –

84603 - 73 - 6

Bay leaf oleoresin 2613 84603 - 73 - 6 182.20 –

P. racemosa

Bay leaf oil 2122 91721 - 75 - 4 – –

Bay leaf oleoresin 2123 91721 - 75 - 4 – –

References

Kilic , Ayben ; Kollmannsberger , Hubert ; and Nitz , Siegfried . 2005 . Glysidically bound volatiles and ﬂ avour

precursors in Laurus noblis L . J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 ( 6 ), 2231 – 2235 .

Lawrence , Brian M. 1980 . Laurel leaf oil . Perfumer Flavorist 5 , 33 – 34 .

Lawrence , Brian M. 2007 . Progress in essential oils . Perfumer Flavorist 32 ( 7 ), 46 – 55 .

Lawrence , Brian M. 2008 . Progress in essential oils . Perfumer Flavorist 33 ( 9 ), 66 – 73 .

Prakash , V. 1990 . Leafy Spices . Boston : CRC Press , pp. 13 – 16 .

Sangun , Mustafa Kamal ; Aydin , Ebru ; Timur , Mahir ; Karadeniz , Hatice ; Caliskan , Mahmut ; and Ozkan ,

Aydin . 2007 . Comparison of chemical composition of the essential oil of Laurus noblis L leaves and

fruits from different regions of Hatay, Turkey . J. Environ. Biol. 28 ( 4 ), 731 – 733 .

Introduction

Beet belongs to a family with many cultivated varieties. The most important is the

red tuber known as beet root or garden beet, which is used as a vegetable. Spinach

beet is used as an herb. Even the leaves of beet root are consumed. Sugar beet is used

as a source of sugar. But for natural color, the deep colored beet root is the raw

material.

The sea beet, which grows in the Mediterranean Sea, is regarded as the ancestor

of the present - day beet. There is mention of the beet in eighth - century BC,

Mesopotamian writings. Theophrastus of Greece describes it as similar to radish.

There is reference to it in the writings of Aristotle. Roman and Jewish literature also

indicate that in the ﬁ rst century BC, domesticated beet, especially spinach beet, was

used in the Mediterranean basin. The use of beet in Medieval Europe is evident in the

writings of later years in England and Germany.

Beet root has been considered an aphrodisiac since Roman times. This is mainly

because of its rich content of boron, an element that plays an important role in sex

hormones. The deep color of the root crops makes it an interesting food item. For this

reason, beet root wine is somewhat popular. Consumption of beet root is reported to

cause some people to pass pink - tinted urine. Probably because of its resemblance to

blood, consumption of the colored vegetable is generally regarded as good for health,

particularly cardiovascular.

Plant Material

The plant is an herbaceous biennial plant with leafy stems 1 – 2 m in height. The leaves

are large, 5 – 20 cm long, and heart - shaped. Generally, wild varieties have larger leaves

than domesticated ones. The ﬂ owers appear as dense spikes. The ﬂ owers are small,

3 – 5 cm in diameter, with ﬁ ve petals and colored green though sometimes tinged

reddish. They are wind - pollinated to produce fruits, which come as a cluster of hard

nutlets. But it is the root tuber that is used as a vegetable and a source for extraction

of natural color. The root crop is ﬂ attened globularly with leaves originating from the

top and a major root tapering from the bottom. The tuber is brightly colored due to

the pigment inside.

On fresh weight basis, beet root has 9.6% of carbohydrate, of which 6.8% is

sugars and the rest ﬁ ber. It has 17% fat and 1.6% proteins. It is rich in B vitamins and

Beet Root

Beta vulgaris L ( Amaranthaceae )

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran

80 Individual Flavors and Colorants

minerals. Beet pulp is fed to horses during training and conditioning as a healthy food.

Beet root is used in folk medicine for a wide range of diseases and hence is a subject

of study by modern scientists.

Chemistry

The coloring components of beet root as a group are called betalains. They generally

consist of betacyanins and betaxanthins. The former are red while the latter are yellow.

Betanin (Fig. 21.1 ) represents the most signiﬁ cant and abundant pigment among the

betalains. Betanin is a glycoside and the aglycone is betanidin. A small amount of

isobetanin is also present. Others present as very minor constituents are probetanin,

neobetanin, indicaxanthin, and vulgaxanthin.

Extractives

Pressed beet juice is generally used for a natural color extract. For this, washed beet

roots are pressed using an acidic pH for the stability of the pigment (Emerton 2008 ).

To avoid heat, the concentration is carried out by ultraﬁ ltration. The concentrate is

pasteurized to protect against microbial action. The juice concentrate can also be

microencapsulated by spray drying using maltodextrin or gum acacia to obtain a

water - soluble powder form.

The pigment content in the concentrate is usually below 1% and at best between

1% and 2%. Because of this, a fairly large dosage is required for use as a color, even

though the color intensity of betalains is quite high.

A continuous countercurrent diffusion technique was used by Wiley and Lee (1978)

to study recovery of the various fractions of the color. The study was further carried

out using a continuous solid – liquid extraction system on different varieties of beet

roots (Lee and Wiley 1981 ). The studies on separation of various fractions of color

using boiling alcohol followed by chilling of the extract to − 25 ° C have resulted in

rapid separation of principal constituents (Bilyk 1979 ).

Figure 21.1. Betanin.

N+

21 Beet Root 81

Betalain pigments are also found in many plants of Amaranthaceae family. Such

plants produce high biomass and could be considered as a potential source of pigment

(Yi - Zhong et al. 2005 ).

Uses

Beet root is used as a food color in foods such as ice cream, beverages, and some fruit

products. Because of the sensitivity of the betalains to heat, this color is more suited

to frozen or chilled products. It is the natural color equivalent of raspberry or cherry.

Beet root juice is beneﬁ cial for reducing blood pressure. Betalain is regarded as

good for cardiovascular health. Studies with animals have shown that the dye may

give protection to liver disorders, especially higher fat deposits among excessive

alcohol users, diabetes sufferers, and people with protein deﬁ ciency.

Analytical Method

There is a method of estimation using spectrophotometric measurement of aqueous

solution at pH 4.5 – 5.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Beet red – – – E162

References

Bilyk , Alexander . 1979 . Extractive fractionation of betalains . J. Food Sci. 44 , 1249 – 1251 .

Emerton , Victoria , ed. 2008 . Food Colors . Oxford, UK : Leatherhead Publishing and Blackwell , pp.

31 – 33 .

Lee , Y.N. ; and Wiley , R.C. 1981 . Betalaine from a continuous solid - liquid extraction system as inﬂ uenced

by raw products, post - harvest and processing variable . J. Food Sci. 46 , 421 – 424 .

Wiley , Robert C. ; and Lee , Ya - Nien . 1978 . Recovery of betalaines from red beets by a diffusion - extraction

procedure . J. Food Sci. 43 , 1056 – 1058 .

Yi - Zhong , Cai ; Mei , Sun ; and Corke , Harold . 2005 . Characterization and application of betalain pigments

from plants of the Amaranthaceae . Trends Food Sci. Technol. 16 , 370 – 376 .

Introduction

Bergamot mint is also known as marsh mint, lemon mint, and, in India, vilayati

pudina . The oil from the ripened fruits is valued as a fragrance in toiletries. The leaves

form the herb. Leaves and ﬂ owers are used for ﬂ avoring iced beverages, teas, desserts,

meats, and ﬁ sh. The brightly colored ﬂ owers are very attractive to bees, butterﬂ ies,

and moths and can also adorn gardens.

Plant Material

Bergamot plants are adaptable to various agroclimatic conditions. The plant is 30 –

90 cm in height with branches. The type of soil, amount of sun, and climate will affect

the growth to some extent. Moist and well - drained soil is the best for the plant. It can

tolerate shade up to a point. Even in temperate weather, the plant can give good yield.

It prefers manure and this will be reﬂ ected in the yield. The leaves are about 1.25 – 5 cm

in length, thin, bronze - green in color, petiolate, smooth, broadly ovate to elliptical,

with apex obtuse (Aktar et al. 1988 ). Its ﬂ owers are purple, appearing in upper axils

on short terminal spikes. The calyx is glabrous with subulate teeth.

Root division is the best method for multiplication. The petals of the ﬂ owers are

used for decorating salads and other edible preparations. The leaves are harvested

around the time of ﬂ owering.

Essential Oil

On steam distillation of the aerial parts, the essential oil is obtained. The volatile oil

obtained from Mentha citrata is analyzed by GC - MS after hydrodistillation (Fathy

2007 ). The identiﬁ ed compound accounts for 98.66% of the total components of the

oil, out of which 84.52% are oxygenated derivatives. The major constituents are lin-

alool (24.69%), linanyl acetate (12.69%), α - terpineol (8.51%), and 1,8 - cineole

(8.39%). Terpene hydrocarbon represents 14.14% of the identiﬁ ed compounds.

Fathy (2007) found on in vitro cytotoxicity testing a moderate effect against brain

and colon human tumor cells, but no effect against lung, breast, liver, or cervical tumor

cells. Oil inhibited in vivo antioxidant activity in alloxan - induced diabetic rats using

vitamin E as standard.

The aroma of the oil is described as citrusy, fruity, balanced, and warm.

Bergamot Mint

Mentha citrata Ehrh ( Labiatae )

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran

84 Individual Flavors and Colorants

Uses

Oil of bergamot mint has the characteristic ﬂ avor of the herb. The leaves and ﬂ owers

are used for ﬂ avoring special liqueurs and various beverages. Oils will have a more

standardized ﬂ avor for the purpose. It can also ﬁ nd use in processed foods like sweet-

ened dishes and meats where the ﬂ avor of leaves is desired.

Bergamot mint is a favorite scent of perfumery and fragrance items like soaps,

scents for bath, and colognes. It also has value in medical preparations for chest infec-

tions, digestive disorders, acne, eczema, and even psoriasis. The oil can reduce fatigue

and tension. Because of this, it is a favorite of aromatherapists.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

M. citrata oil – 68917 - 15 - 7 – –

References

Aktar , Husain ; Virmani , O.P. ; Sharma , Askok ; Kumar , Anup ; and Mishra , L.N. 1988 . Major Essential Oil -

Bearing Plants of India . Lucknow, India : Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants ,

pp. 167 – 181 .

Fathy , Fify I. 2007 . Chemical and biological study of the essential oil of Mentha citrata Ehrh. cultivated

in Egypt . Bull. Fac. Pharm. Cairo Univ. 45 ( 1 ), 61 – 67 (English).

Introduction

Black cumin is also called black seed, black caraway, and fennel ﬂ ower. Sometimes

it is mistaken for black sesame seed, but they are quite different.

An ancient Indian medical book regards the spice as a remedy for a wide range of

diseases. There is also a report that Nigella sativa seeds were found in a number of

ancient Egyptian sites including Tutankhamen ’ s tomb. There is also reference to it in

the Bible. According to ancient Muslim writings, Nigella seed is a remedy for all

diseases except death.

Plant Material

The seeds grow on a small herb with a height around 30 – 60 cm. Leaves are compound,

two to three pinnatisect cut into linear or linear - lanceolate segments (Warrier 1995 ).

It has pale blue ﬂ owers, solitary, with long peduncles but without an involucre. The

seeds are black, trigonous, and regulose - tubercular. The seeds are acrid and bitter with

many medicinal properties.

Black cumin is believed to have originated in the eastern Mediterranean region. It

is both cultivated and found as a weed in India. There is some interest in its export

both as seed and as essential oil. It has a nonvolatile ether extract value of 35 – 40%.

The volatile oil content is 0.5 – 1.6%. Solvent - extracted ﬁ xed oil is a reddish - brown

semidrying oil. Tunisian and Iranian seeds on analysis give 26.7% and 22.6% of

protein, 28.5% and 40.4% of fat, 40.0% and 32.7% of total carbohydrates, and 4.9%

and 4.4% of ash (Cheikh - Rouhou et al . 2007 ).

Essential Oil

On steam distillation, black cumin gives a volatile oil with a yield of about 1%. It has

an unpleasant odor because of the acrid constituents.

Physical characteristics of the oil are as follows (Pruthi 1976 ).

Optical rotation + 1.43 to + 2.86

Refractive index 1.4836 – 1.4844 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 0.875 – 0.886

Black Cumin

Nigella sativa L ( Umbelliferae )

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran