Attokaran M. Natural Food Flavors and Colorants

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66 Individual Flavors and Colorants

from the seed coat. After removal of hexane, annatto can be extracted with acetone

to get a cleaner extractive containing bixin. Bixin can be further concentrated by

crystallizing from acetone, when even bixin of 95% strength can be obtained. It must

be remembered that a large amount of bixin as a natural color is used with a bixin

extract of 5%, and so unnecessary concentration is not important in most cases.

However, initial washing with hexane will free the extract from interfering impurities

which may appear as sediments or ﬂ oating globules when used in foods.

Because the skin is not separated from the kernel and not size - reduced, some agita-

tion may be needed for extraction by percolation. A more convenient procedure is

repeated circulation of percolated solvent for 1 hour using a pump and circulating

ducts from bottom to top.

In many cases, especially for coloring fat - based product on a small scale, extraction

can be carried out using common ﬁ xed oils. Use of stirring and temperature not

exceeding 70 ° C will be beneﬁ cial. Among the oils, castor oil is preferred. Then a weak

solution of bixin in vegetable oil is obtained, which can be used in butter and other

dairy products. Studies on the separation of the dry powder from the seed by using

particle attrition and impact have shown a possible extraction method without using

solvent (Passos et al. 1998 ).

Compared with other carotenes, annatto pigments show superior stability to expo-

sure to air, although they are affected by oxidizing chemicals. The dye is stable below

105 ° C but above 125 ° C stability is poor. The color in paper chromatography has been

determined. Both cis - bixin and trans - nor - bixin are orange, while trans - bixin is red.

A constituent orellin is found to be yellow. Several thermally formed volatiles origi-

nating from bixin, including toluene and xylene, are detected in very minute amounts

during processing at high temperature.

Annatto also has an essential oil. The yield is very low (about 0.25%), but has a

unique aroma. More than 100 compounds have been reported out of which about half

have been identiﬁ ed. Annatto leaf oil has about 54% of a tetracyclic sesquine hydro-

carbon, ishwarane. Volatile oils have not yet been utilized as aroma in food.

Methods of Testing

Unfortunately, the Association of Ofﬁ cial Analytical Chemists (AOAC ) has not given

any testing method for annatto. A very old method of Mckeown and Mark describes

extraction of seed with chloroform followed by determination of absorption at 500 nm

(A 500) and at 404 nm (A 404) and calculation as follows:

Total pigment

A 500 A 404 0.256 (A 500)

286.6

+−

××

W1000

100

where V is the ﬁ nal volume and W the weight of the seed taken.

Manufacturers of extracts use a method based on spectrophotometric absorption

measurement of a cold acetone extract at 487 nm, comparing it to the reading of a

standard bixin obtained from any of the supplier of specialized chemicals. For nor -

bixin content, acetone extract is treated with 0.33 aqueous KOH, before reading at

480 nm. In modern practice, the spectrophotometric method is preferred.

17 Annatto 67

Uses

In Central and South America, seeds are extensively used as a natural color for food.

It is one of the earliest known and safe food colors and therefore is used in meat, ﬁ sh,

and grain - based preparations. It is also believed to add to the ﬂ avor and hence is

regarded as a spice.

Annatto extract is also used as a natural food color in dairy products. According

to the food laws of many countries, only natural colors, especially those of carotenoid

nature, are allowed to be used in butter and other dairy products. This gives bixin and

nor - bixin a virtual monopoly for use in butter, margarine, cheese, and so on. It is also

used in a wide range of manufactured foods, from confectionery to savory products,

including salad dressings, fruit juice, bakery products, cereals, smoked ﬁ sh, and

sausage.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Annatto, bixin, nor - bixin 2104 2104 – – 160 b

Annatto extract 2103 8015 - 67 - 6 – 160 b

References

Passos , M.L. ; Oliveira , L.S. ; Franca , A.S. ; and Massarani , G. 1998 . Bixin powder production in conical

spouted . Drying Technol. 16 ( 9 and 10 ), 1855 – 1879 .

Preston , H.D. ; and Rickard , M.D. 1980 . Extraction and chemistry of annatto . Food Chem. 5 , 47 – 56 .

Satyanarayana , A. ; Prabhakara , Rao P.G. ; and Rao , D.G. 2003 . Chemistry, processing and toxicology of

annatto ( Bixa orellana L) . J. Food Sci. Technol. (India) 40 ( 2 ), 131 – 141 .

Introduction

Asafoetida (asafetida), the intense - smelling gummy resin, is so well - liked in India and

some nearby Asian countries that some people refer to it as “ food of the gods. ” It is

disliked equally by English and European people who gave it names like “ devil ’ s

dung ” and “ stinking gum. ” The important point to be noted is that some ﬂ avoring

substances at high concentration may appear unpleasant, but at the right dilution and

in combination with other materials can be quite attractive.

In the past, it was familiar to the Mediterranean region, having originated in Persia.

For some time, it was somewhat popular there. It emerged in Europe from the expedi-

tions of Alexander the Great. Dioscorides in the ﬁ rst century AD spoke favorably

about its ﬂ avor and curative power. But after the fall of the Roman Empire in the

sixteenth century, asafoetida lost its appeal to European consumers. Now, it is almost

a forgotten spice in Europe. However, with the popularity of Indian cuisine, there is

hope for its revival in Europe for main dishes.

Plant Material

Asafoetida is the dried exudate of gum oleoresin coming out from a live rhizome or

taproot of a few Ferula species. Three of them grow in Kashmir and India. Other

important growing areas are Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.

The Ferula plant has a large taproot (rhizome) which is carrot - shaped with a 12 - to

15 - cm diameter at the crown, when fully grown at 4 – 5 years. Just before summer

when plants ﬂ ower, the top of the living rhizome is exposed by cutting the stem close

to the crown. Milky latex - like juice exudes from the cut surface. After a few days, the

dried gum is scraped off. This process of cutting and collecting the exudate continues

for about 3 months. From high yielding plants, the gum collected can weigh as much

as 1 kg.

The spice is acrid and bitter to taste. It emits a strong aroma akin to alliaceous odor

due to sulfur - containing ﬂ avor compounds. The typical piercing aroma is caused by

secondary butyl propyl disulﬁ de and other sulﬁ des. To regulate the ﬂ avor, it is often

compounded with starch or cereals. Because of this, there is very little consistency in

the small amount of analytical data available. A typical analysis will show 40 – 64%

resin and 25% gum impurities. But volatile oil is the chief source of aroma. The resin

portion consists mainly of asaresinotennol sometimes combined with ferulic acid

Asafoetida

Ferula assafoetida L ( Umbelliferae )

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran

70 Individual Flavors and Colorants

(Pruthi 1976 ). There is also umbelliferone in the combined state. Disulﬁ des, polysul-

ﬁ des, monoterpenes, α - and β - pinene, some free acids, and traces of vanillin are the

major constituents of the volatile oil (Leung and Foster 1996 ).

Extractives

Although India is an important market for asafoetida, there is no essential oil or

solvent - extracted oleoresin in the market. The spice itself is a gum oleoresin, which

is strong in aroma and ﬂ avor. Essential oil or solvent extract will be too rich to regulate

conveniently. Generally, the spice is diluted by compounding. However, the presence

of an identiﬁ cation number by the Flavor Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA)

points to the existence of oil and extract used by ﬂ avor houses.

Asafoetida has an essential oil that represents 3 – 20%. One examination shows

optical rotation of − 9 ° 0 ′ to 9 ° 18 ′ , refractive index of 1.493 – 1.518 at 20 ° C, speciﬁ c

gravity of 0.906 – 0.973, and sulfur content of 15.3 – 29.0% (Pruthi 1976 ).

With a view to promote solvent - extracted oleoresin in the Indian market, the

author ’ s lab carried out extraction. Using compound material available in the market,

hexane extraction gives a yield of 11%. The product has 60% volatile oil content.

Dilution is carried out with sunﬂ ower seed oil and glyceryl monooleate. After hexane

extraction, the residue on extraction with ethyl acetate gives a further 25% extract,

but the oil content is negligible. Most likely because of the availability of compounded

material in different forms, the solvent - extracted product is not a great success.

Uses

Asafoetida is used extensively in India to ﬂ avor savory preparations like vegetable

curries, sauces, and pickles. One vegetable preparation with gravy especially popular

in vegetarian South Indian cuisine is sambar , where the asafoetida ﬂ avor stands out

distinctly.

Asafoetida is also used in sauces and preparations popular in the Western world,

sometimes as oil or ﬂ uid extract. It would appear that the taste is an acquired one.

Asafoetida is used for treatment of chronic bronchitis and whooping cough in

Ayurvedic therapy. In China, it is used for increasing blood coagulation time. Ferulic

acid and sodium ferulate inhibit platelet aggregation. It is applied externally on the

stomach to stimulate the digestive system. It also has use in animal medicines.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Asafoetida oil 2108 9000 - 04 - 8 182.20 –

Asafoetida ﬂ uid extract 2106 9000 - 04 - 8 182.20 –

Asafoetida gum 2107 9000 - 04 - 8 182.20 –

References

Leung , Albert Y. ; and Foster , Steven . 1996 . Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients . New York :

John Wiley and Sons , pp. 44 – 45 .

Pruthi , J.S. 1976 . Spices and Condiments . New Delhi : National Book Trust , pp. 22 – 27 .

Introduction

Basil, also referred to as sweet basil, is a culinary herb used all over the world. There

are many varieties and subspecies that are important in some regions. Basil may have

originated in India and Iran but has been cultivated worldwide for over 5000 years.

Many varieties are medicinally important. Holy basil ( tulsi ) is revered in India as a

symbol of sanctity in Hinduism. It is considered to be sacred and is present at many

ceremonies, including funerals.

Many medical beneﬁ ts, some of them based on myths, are attributed to basil. Even

the smell of basil is regarded as curative. Basil is a symbol of love in Italy and a token

of acceptance of a young lady by a young man in Romania.

The ﬂ avor of fresh basil is attractive in many prepared foods. Basil from different

regions has different distinct ﬂ avors based on the predominance of different

chemical constituents. However, it is the dried herb that is the raw material for extrac-

tives. Different varieties of dried herb also show some variation in their ﬂ avor

characteristics.

Plant Material

Basil is an annual bush belonging to the mint family. The plant grows to a height of

50 – 120 cm. It has opposite, dull green velvet leaves with an average length of 7 – 8 cm

and breadth of 3 – 4 cm. It has small white or light - colored ﬂ owers arranged in a ter-

minal spike. The leaves possess dot - like oil glands in which essential oil is stored.

The plant emits a light fragrance. When fresh, the herb has a pleasant, minty note. It

has a spicy but mildly pungent and bitter taste.

Basil, being a cold - sensitive plant, grows best in warm, dry weather. Therefore,

growing basil in cold regions requires careful selection of the area and season.

The dried herb has about 14% protein, 61% carbohydrate, 4% fat, and 18% ﬁ ber.

It has minerals and vitamins, especially ascorbic acid and vitamin A. But its most

signiﬁ cant component is the volatile oil.

Essential Oil

The yield of essential oil is generally lower than 1%. In one report, the yield from the

aerial part is 0.1 – 0.25%, but the ﬂ ower top alone gives 0.4%. This indicates that ﬂ ower

Basil

Ocimum basilicum L ( Labiatae )

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran

72 Individual Flavors and Colorants

top has the most oil, but the quantity of herb so obtained will be low. In a recent study

in Egypt, hydrodistilled volatile oil of stem, leaf, and inﬂ orescence has been obtained

(Islam and Salama 2007 ). In all three, more than 30 components have been identiﬁ ed.

About 70% of these are oxygenated compounds. Linalool, estragole, cardinol,

bornyl acetate, ocimene, and 1,8 - cineole are prominent. In a study in China, gas

chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC - MS) examination of steam - distilled oil

shows 54 compounds. The main constituents are anisole, p - allylanisole, ( + ) - epi -

bicyclo - sesquiphellandrene, and other compounds (Lu and Li 2006 ). In oil from the

green and purple varieties in Iran, a difference in chemical compositions has been

noted (Sajjadi 2006 ). The variations of four different seasons in composition of essen-

tial oil have been studied (Hussain et al. 2008 ). The yield varies between 0.5%

and 0.8%, with the maximum amount being obtained in winter. There is also some

difference in the proportions of the various constituents.

Although they are all labeled basil oil, there is signiﬁ cant difference due to regional,

seasonal, varietal, and stage of maturity variations. These factors must be carefully

considered while standardizing basil oil for ﬂ avoring purposes.

European - type oil is obtained by steam distillation of the ﬂ owering top or the entire

aerial part. Basil oil is pale yellow mobile liquid with a ﬂ oral, spicy note and is soluble

in fatty oils. Comoros - type oil has a more noticeable camphoraceous note.

According to the FCC, Comoros - type basil oil occurs as a light yellow liquid with

a spicy odor. It may be distinguished from other types, such as European - type basil

oil by its camphoraceous odor and physicochemical constants.

Basil oil dissolves in fatty oils. It is soluble in mineral oil, forming a turbid solu-

tion. While it is insoluble in glycerol, it goes into solution in propylene glycol with

some haziness.

European - type Basil oil, according to FCC, occurs as a pale yellow liquid with a

ﬂ oral - spicy odor. It may be distinguished from other types like Comoros or Reunion

by its more ﬂ oral odor and its physicochemical constants. It is soluble in most ﬁ xed

oils and, with turbidity, in mineral oil. One milliliter is soluble in 20 mL of propylene

glycol with slight haziness, but it is insoluble in glycerin.

Physical characteristics as deﬁ ned by the FCC are as follows.

Comoros - type European - type

Optical rotation − 2 to + 2 ° − 5 to − 15 °

Refractive index 1.512 – 1.520 at 20 ° C 1.483 – 1.493 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 0.952 – 0.973 0.900 – 0.920

Solubility 1 mL dissolves in 4 mL of 80% alcohol

Oleoresin

There are very few references regarding oleoresin in literature. On commercial level,

basil herb, when extracted with a mixture of acetone and hexane (70 : 30), gives

3 – 3.5% yield with a volatile oil content of 2 – 6%. When extracted with hexane,

the yield comes down to 1.5% – 2%, naturally with a higher volatile oil content

of 10 – 15%.

19 Basil 73

Uses

Basil leaves are used for ﬂ avoring of a variety of dishes. They are particularly useful

in vegetarian dishes, although they are also used in meat, seafood, cheese, and soups.

When used in processed foods, basil oil or oleoresin will be very convenient as the

ﬂ avor can be made uniform. Already extractives are used in sauces, salads, croutons,

puddings, condiments, liqueurs, and alcoholic beverages. It also ﬁ nds use in perfume

compositions for its distinct fragrance.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Basil oil 2119 8015 - 73 - 4 182.20 –

84775 - 71 - 3

Basil extract 2120 8015 - 73 - 4 182.10 –

84775 - 71 - 3

References

Hussain , A.I. ; Amar , F. ; Hussain , S. ; Syed , T. ; and Przybylski , R. 2008 . Chemical composition, antioxidant

and antimicrobial activities of basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) essential oils depends on seasonal variations .

Food Chem. 108 ( 3 ), 986 – 995 .

Islam , W.T. ; and Salama , M.M. 2007 . Chemical composition and bioactivity of volatile oils from Ocimum

basilicum L var. minimum cultivated in Egypt . Egypt. J. Biomed. Sci. 24 , 218 – 231 ( Chem. Abstr.

149 :285124).

Lu , R. ; and Li , Y. 2006 . Analysis of the chemical constituents of essential oil in Ocimum basilicum from

Guangxi . Guangxi Zhiwu 26 ( 4 ), 456 – 458 (Chinese) ( Chem. Abstr. 149 :315033).

Sajjadi , S.E. 2006 . Analysis of essential oils of 2 cultivated basil ( Ocimum basilicum L) from Iran . J. Fac.

Pharm. Tehran Univ. Med. Sci . 14 ( 3 ), 128 – 130 ( Chem. Abstr. 147 :272745 ).

Introduction

Bay leaves, also called laurel leaves, are produced on an evergreen plant. This plant

has a very special place in ancient Rome, as laurel wreaths were placed on winners

of chariot races and other competitions. Even kings were crowned with laurel leaves.

Ancient medical practitioners like Dioscorides believed that bay could bring relief to

pain and aches.

Bay leaves probably originated in Turkey and then moved to Mediterranean coun-

tries. The plant will not grow in Northern Europe because of the extreme cold. Bay

leaves are very popular as a spice in Europe and North America.

Plant Material

Laurel grows in Mediterranean countries such as Greece, Spain, Portugal, Cyprus,

Italy, and Yugoslavia; in Asia Minor in Turkey; and in Central America in Mexico and

Guatemala. The plant is a small evergreen tree, which looks like a bush. The dried

leaves are bay leaf proper. Leaves of the “ bay rum tree ” ( Pimenta racemosa M) or

other trees are sometimes mistaken for bay leaf, but are also used.

The seeds of the laurel plant have a low germination rate and take a long time to

germinate. New plants are formed by layering or from cuttings. Once seedlings are

produced, the plant can grow into a large tree of 10 – 13 m in height. If properly pruned,

the plant grows into a bush. Growing in pots also limits the size of the plant.

The leaves are 6 – 7 cm in length and 2 – 3 cm in breadth. The top surface is green

while the underside is pale to yellowish green. The odor of the crushed leaf is mild

but fragrant with citrusy and phenolic notes. It has an aromatic taste combined with

bitterness. The ﬂ avor of laurel leaf is often used in French cooking.

The dried leaf is the raw material for extractives. The full aroma is developed only

after slow drying. The dry leaf has 7% protein, 9% fat, 50% carbohydrate, and 25%

crude ﬁ ber. It has minerals, B vitamins, and some ascorbic acid. The essential oil is

its most signiﬁ cant constituent.

Bay Leaf (Laurel)

Laurus nobilis L ( Lauraceae )

Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran