Attokaran M. Natural Food Flavors and Colorants

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256 Individual Flavors and Colorants

on UV, IR, and NMR spectra. Two anthocyanins based on cyanidin have also been

found in kokam (Krishnamurthy et al. 1982a ).

Extract

Kokam has no essential oil; the aqueous extract of the rind is used as the natural

ﬂ avoring material. The dried fruit can be extracted with boiling water two to four

times. The combined extract is strained through a ﬁ lter cloth. This can be concentrated

by boiling in an open stainless steel steam kettle. A thick extract of 60 – 70 ° Brix is

used for ﬂ avoring.

In recent times, the importance of kokam has been as a source of ( – )hydroxycitric

acid. The garcinia fruit (Malabar tamarind) is a better source, but when the demand

is high, kokam extract is also used.

The process involves extraction by hot water (60 – 70 ° C), followed by adjustment

of the pH to 8 – 9 using sodium hydroxide and then reaction with calcium chloride

solution to gain the calcium derivative of hydroxycitric acid. The precipitated calcium

salt is ﬁ ltered through a basket centrifuge, washed carefully to remove excess chemi-

cals, and dried in a cabinet dryer at 90 – 100 ° C. The dried cake is powdered as per the

customer ’ s speciﬁ cation.

The hydroxycitric acid content of kokam is lower than that of the Malabar tamarind

and therefore adjustments must be made to increase the strength of the active compo-

nent. The product from kokam is generally a little darker than that from G. cambogia .

In a way, it is advantageous to use a mixture of both.

As explained in the case of G. cambogia , the mechanism of action is similar. ( – )

Hydroxycitric acid tends to turn into lactone, and to prevent this, calcium or potassium

derivative is made. Hydroxycitric acid competes with citrates in the Krebs cycle for

the enzyme system so that less acetyl coenzyme A is formed (Majeed et al. 1994 ).

Due to this, fat formation and accumulation of triglycerides are reduced. Thus,

the extract of kokam is helpful in controlling weight when consumed in the right

form. Speciﬁ c details about this process are described in Chapter 54 on the garcinia

fruit.

Uses

Aqueous extract of kokam is used for various preparations, including ﬁ sh curry. It

also has a taste that can be pleasant in candies and confectionery. Kokam extract is

used as a soft drink in the summer months. The calcium derivative of ( – )hydroxycitric

acid has value as a weight - reducing supplement.

High antioxidant activity has been noticed (Mishra et al. 2006 ) and this adds one

more positive attribute to its known medical properties when used in cooking, in soft

drinks, and in home remedies. The garcinol present in kokam has been conﬁ rmed to

have antioxidant properties (Sang et al. 2001 ). Further studies (Sang et al. 2002 ) have

revealed that garcinol, which is a polyisoprenylated benzophenone, has the ability to

contribute to chromopreventive activity, although the actual mechanism of its action

is unclear. Further study on this aspect of garcinol may be very valuable.

64 Kokam 257

References

Krishnamurthy , N. , Lewis , Y.S. ; and Ravindranath , B. 1982a . Chemical composition of kokum rind . J. Food

Sci. Technol. 19 , 97 .

Krishnamurthy , N. ; Ravindranath , B. ; Guru Rao , T.N. ; and Venkatesan , K. 1982b . Crystal and molecular

structure of isogarcinol . Tetrahedron Lett. 23 ( 21 ), 2233 – 2236 .

Majeed , Muhammed ; Rosen , Robert ; McCarty , Mark ; Conte , Anthony ; Patil , Dilip ; and Butrym , Eryc . 1994 .

Citrin: A Revolutionary, Herbal Approach to Weight Management . Burlingame, CA : Editions , pp.

1 – 69 .

Mishra , Akanksha ; Bapat , Mrinal M. ; Tilak , Jai C. ; and Devasagayam , Thomas P.A. 2006 . Antioxidant

activity of Garcinia indica (kokam) and its syrup . Current Sci. 91 ( 1 ), 90 – 93 .

Pruthi , J.S. 1976 . Spices and Condiments . Delhi : National Book Trust of India , pp. 147 – 148 .

Sang , Shengmin ; Pan , Min - Hsiung ; Cheng , Xiaofang ; Bai , Naisheng ; Stark , Ruth E. ; Rosen , Robert T. ;

Lin - Shiau , Shoei - yn ; Lin , Jen - Kun ; and Ho , Chi - Tang . 2001 . Chemical studies on antioxidant mecha-

nism of garcinol analysis of radical reaction of garcinol and then antitumor activities . Tetrahedron 57

( 50 ), 9931 – 9938 .

Sang , Shengmin ; Liao , Chiung - Ho ; Pan , Min - Hsiung ; Rosen , Robert T. ; Lin - Shian , Shoei - yn ; Lin , Jen - Kun ;

and Ho , Chi - Tang . 2002 . Chemical studies on antioxidant mechanism of garcinol: analysis of radical

reaction products of garcinol with peroxy radicals and their antitumor activities . Tetrahedron 58 ( 51 ),

10095 – 10102 .

Introduction

Kola, also called “ cola, ” belongs to a family of several trees of the African rainforest.

It is related to the cocoa tree. It is a plant product made well known through popular

cola - based soft drinks.

In West Africa, the kola nut is used as a masticatory. Since Muslims are forbidden

to consume alcohol, kola nuts are an effective substitute for alcohol ’ s mild stimulant

properties. In traditional African culture, kola nuts are ceremonially presented to tribal

chiefs and important guests. It is believed that chewing the nut prevents hunger pangs,

and therefore underfed native workers use it during working hours to overcome

fatigue. However, modern - day urban youths consider the chewing of kola to be unso-

phisticated and the habit has become less and less popular. Continued use of kola for

chewing can result in stained teeth. Statistically, there is a high incidence of oral and

gastrointestinal cancer among users.

Plant Material

Kola nuts grow on a tropical tree native to Central and West Africa. The tree was

introduced to South America by African laborers. The tree attains a height of around

12 m. The leaves are 15 – 20 cm in length and appear leathery. It has yellow or some-

times white ﬂ owers with red or purple patches. Fruits are of somewhat irregular shape

and contain 10 – 12 seeds with light - colored shells. The dried seed, after removal of

the seed coat, is called a nut because of its hard texture.

The dried seed contains alkaloids: caffeine, 1 – 2%; and theobromine, less than

0.1%. It has catechin type ﬂ avan - 3 - ols, carbohydrates (with a large amount of starch),

proteins, and some fat. The nut tastes bitter because of its alkaloids and polyphenols

(Leung and Foster 1996 ).

Extractives

Kola nuts have no worthwhile essential oil as they are not known for their aroma.

Their signiﬁ cant components are nonvolatile and therefore an extract is the

sensible option. Procedures used by major soft drink companies are conﬁ dential.

However, extraction is believed to be carried out by aqueous ethanol so that both polar

Kola Nut

Cola acuminata (Beauv), C. nitida (Vent)

Schott et Endl ( Sterculiaceae )

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260 Individual Flavors and Colorants

constituents such as polyphenol and nonpolar constituents such as alkaloids can be

extracted. A 20% aqueous ethyl alcohol solution gives a satisfactory result for soaking

and decanting.

Uses

Kola nut extracts are widely used in soft drinks. They can also be used in alcoholic

drinks, confectionery, and bakery items. Because of its stimulant action, kola extract

is also used in energy foods.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Kola nut extract ( Cola acuminata ) 2607 89997 - 82 - 0 182.20 –

Kola nut extract ( Cola nitida ) – 84696 - 01 - 5 – –

Reference

Leung , Albert Y. ; and Foster , Steven . 1996 . Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients , 2nd edition .

New York : John Wiley and Sons , pp. 332 – 333 .

Introduction

Large cardamom is also known as Sikkim or Nepal cardamom, or “ greater carda-

mom. ” It is mostly used in India in Northern and Eastern Indian cookery. Many spices

belonging to the same family are grown in different parts of Southeast Asia but are

not much used.

Plant Material

Large cardamom is the fruit of a perennial herbaceous plant. The leafy stem has

oblong, lanceolate green leaves that are glabrous on both surfaces. The plants grow

along small springs, in marshy places, on shady sides of mountain streams, and along

hilly slopes. It thrives at an altitude of 750 – 1700 m above sea level. The main growing

area is in the Himalayan slopes and foothills. Flowers and fruits are produced when

plant matures in its third year. Harvesting is done between August and October.

The fruits are dark, 2 – 3 cm in length, each with 30 – 50 seeds, which are held

together by a thick sugary pulp. The seeds have a taste similar to that of true cardamom

(see Chapter 28 ). The fruit consists of 70% seeds and 30% skin by weight. The seeds

contain protein at 6%, starch 43.2%, ash 4%, and volatile oil 2.5 – 3%.

The capsules used to be dried on a raised bamboo platform with heat generated

from ﬁ rewood burning underneath. This results in a slightly smoky ﬂ avor. Today,

drying is done without contact with smoke. A room is heated by a series of tin pipes.

Flue gas from a burner is pumped through the pipes. In some places, cross - ﬂ ow elec-

trical dryers are also used.

Essential Oil

Seeds separated from husk on distillation yield 2.5% v/w of oil. This colorless oil

shows optical rotation [ α ]

− 8.48, refractive index n

1.4605, and speciﬁ c gravity

0.9113. A study carried out with GC - MS showed 16.3% monoterpenes, 75.2% oxy-

genated monoterpenes, and 6.3% sesquiterpenes. Major constituents are 1,8 - cineole

61.31%, α - terpineol 7.92%, β - pinene 8.85%, α - pinene 3.79%, and allo - aromadendrene

3.17% (Gurudutt et al. 1996 ).

A high level of cineole is noted by many workers. This gives the oil a camphora-

ceous note similar to that of eucalyptus oil. The pericarp (husk) of large cardamom

Large Cardamom

Amomum subulatum Rozhergh ( Zingiberaceae )

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262 Individual Flavors and Colorants

yields 0.18% volatile oil in Clevenger hydrodistillation. The oil shows optical rotation

of − 7 ° 7 ′ , refractive index of 1.4733, and speciﬁ c gravity 0.9148. GC - MS analysis

reveals 37 components representing 98% of the oil. The major compounds are

1,8 - cineole (38.7%), β - pinene (13.6%), α - terpineol (12.6%), spathulenol (8.3%),

4 - terpineol, germacrene, α - pinene, and β - selinene (Pura Naik et al. 2004 ).

In commercial production, a full capsule containing seed and husk on steam distil-

lation yields 1.5% oil. GC analysis shows 68 – 75% cineole, 7 – 9% β - pinene, 3 – 4%

α - pinene, 0.5 – 2% myrcene, and less than 0.5% linalool. The structure of 1,8 - cineole

is given in Chapter 28 on cardamom.

Oleoresin

There is very limited production of large cardamom oleoresin. The deoiled whole

capsule after steam distillation, drying, and extraction with a mixture of hexane and

acetone gives a resin with a yield of 1.5%. This is generally blended with a vegetable

oil such as sunﬂ ower seed oil, mono - and diglyceride, and a requisite quantity of vola-

tile oil to obtain a satisfactory oleoresin. The product is a dark brown oily liquid with

an aroma dominated by cineole and a taste typical of large cardamom.

Uses

Large cardamom is used in a variety of traditional sweet preparations and in some

vegetable curries. Some of the candies in which it is used are now made into processed

items. In these, both oil and oleoresin blend very well.

References

Gurudutt , K.N. , Naik , J.P. ; and Srinivas , P. 1996 . Volatile constituents of large cardamom ( Amomum subu-

latum Roxb) . Flavor Fragrance J. 11 , 7 – 9 .

Pura Naik , J. ; Rao , L. Jagan Mohan ; Kumar , T.M. Mohan ; and Sampathu , S.R. 2004 . Chemical composition

of the volatile oil from the pericarp (husk) of large cardamom ( Amomum subulatum Roxb) . Fragrance

Flavor J. 19 ( 5 ), 441 – 444 .

Introduction

The lemon is a small yellow citrus fruit that is primarily used for its pulp and juice.

Lemon juice is rich in citric acid and is therefore quite sour. Although the pulp and

juice have good ﬂ avor, they are generally not used to ﬂ avor other products. The major

ﬂ avor ingredient is lemon peel oil.

The origin of the lemon is not very clear, although it is presumed that it was ﬁ rst

grown in India, northern regions of Myanmar, and some regions of China. It was then

brought to Iran and Iraq and, later, to Egypt around AD 700. There is an Arabic treatise

about its farming and use as an ornamental tree in gardens. It was commonly used in

Arab and Mediterranean countries by the eleventh century AD. It entered Europe

around this time through Southern Italy during the time of ancient Rome. The word

“ lemon ” may have originated from nimbu in Sanskrit. Arabs and Persians modiﬁ ed it

into limun and Italians and French to limone . Major lemon cultivation in Europe began

in the ﬁ fteenth century and from there Columbus took it to the Americas.

Lemon juice is made into popular beverages, such as lemonade. Its acid taste is

made use of in many confectionary products. Lemon juice is used for the marination

of ﬁ sh and meat. In India, it is a popular base for hot pickles. A slice of lemon (or

lime) gives a freshness to alcoholic cocktails.

Plant Material

Lemons grow on trees that reach a height of 3 – 6 m. Its twigs usually have sharp thorns.

The leaves are alternate with a reddish tint when young, becoming dark green above

and light green below when fully mature. They are oblong, elliptical, or long ovate

with a length of 6 – 11 cm. They are ﬁ nely toothed with thin wings on the petiole. The

ﬂ owers, which are mildly fragrant, are either singly or clustered in two or three on

the leaf axil. Opened ﬂ owers have four or ﬁ ve petals, with a white inside and a purplish

outside, with 20 – 40 combined stamens and yellow anthers. The fruits are ovoloid with

longer axis, from stem end to tip measuring 7 – 12 cm. At the tip, there is a nipple - like

projection.

The peel is light or bright yellow, sometimes with stripes of green, dotted with oil

glands on the surface. The oil in lemon peel contains the most natural ﬂ avor. The

thickness of the peel is 6 – 10 mm. Inside the fruit is divided into 8 – 10 segments full

of juicy pulp. Lemons may contain seeds or be seedless.

Lemon

Citrus limon L ( Rutaceae )

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Essential Oil

Lemon oil is produced by expression of the rind in a general process known as cold -

pressed oil extraction (NIIR Board 2009 ). Many years ago, in Sicily, the oil was

expressed with handheld devices. The lemon industry consisted of family units spread

over the growing regions. Women and children participated by cutting lemons in half

and scooping out the inside pulp. Men, sitting on low stools, pressed the oil from the

rind into sponges held over mud pots. This sponge process was later replaced by

primitive pressing gadgets, though the quality of the oil obtained by manual pressing

was regarded as quite good. Subsequently, the simple gadgets were replaced by rotary

rasping machines.

In the United States, lemon oil is mainly produced in California. Because of the

high cost of labor, the Italian hand - operated method is unsuitable; therefore, more

efﬁ cient presses were developed. Essentially, the whole fruit is pressed in stainless

steel screw presses. As the fruits pass through the tapered screw and expeller, a disper-

sion of juice, oil, and cell debris comes out. From this, the lighter essential oil is sepa-

rated by centrifugation from the heavier aqueous juice rich in acid and sugar.

The separation of the two phases should be done without much delay so that the

ﬂ avor of the oil is unaffected. On long keeping, enzymes become active, resulting in

unwanted oxidation and changes in the chemical nature of constituents like citral, a

compound important in giving a lemony note to the essential oils.

A better yield of oil is obtained if the rind is minced and steam - distilled to obtain

oil. While cold pressing gives a yield of 0.035%, on steam distillation the yield is

0.07%. This low yield for cold pressing is due to the fact that some oil will be trapped

in the soft albedo portion of the peel.

The Spanish lemon oil industry also used the manual sponge - pressing method. It

was replaced by a method that employed needle puncturing of the oil cells by mechani-

cal means. The oil that oozes out is similar to cold - pressed oil.

Brazil has emerged as a major producer of citrus fruits meant for processing,

including lemons. Here the oil is expressed using a mechanical screw press to remove

emulsion of oil and juice and then separated by centrifugation.

Recent chemical studies on the constituents of lemon oil are scarce. The subject is

brieﬂ y reviewed by Leung and Foster (1996) . Almost 90% of the oil is made up of

monoterpene hydrocarbons, and of this, as much as 70% is made up of limonene,

which is a characteristic component of citrus oils. There are lesser amounts of other

hydrocarbons, such as γ - terpinene, β - pinene, sabinene, α - pinene, and myrcene; 2 – 6%

are composed of aldehydes mainly citral. In addition, alcohols such as terpinen - 4 - ols,

α - terpineol, and geraniol are noted. Small amounts of sesquiterpenes, in the form of

bisabolene, α - bergamotene, and caryophyllene, have also been found.

The ﬁ ne, appealing aroma of lemon oil can be increased by removing the terpene

hydrocarbons to create terpeneless oil. Italian lemon oil, on fractional distillation at

reduced pressure of 25 mm, yields an enriched fraction representing only 8%, with

citral content boosted to over 40%. Similarly, sesquiterpenes are removed at 20 mm

pressure, with citral enrichment of 60.5% with a yield of 5.36% (NIIR Board 2009 ).

Besides better aroma, the advantage of removal of hydrocarbons is better dispers-

ibility in dilute alcohol. This quality is useful when used in soft drinks, where whole

oil cannot be dispersed and instead creates a ring of oil ﬂ oating on top. The removal

67 Lemon 265

of hydrocarbons such as limonene is also beneﬁ cial in reducing oxidative degeneration

of ﬂ avor.

The oil obtained from the leaves, petioles, and small twigs of citrus trees is called

petitgrain oil. Oil of petitgrain lemon is also produced by steam distillation. The oil

has a lemony note caused by citral, which can be present to the extent of 50%.

Generally, this oil is used in the fragrance industry rather than in the ﬂ avor industry.

According to the FCC, cold - pressed lemon oil (desert type) is a pale to deep yellow

or green - yellow liquid with the characteristic odor and taste of fresh lemon peel. Oil

is miscible with dehydrated alcohol and with glacial acetic acid. It may contain suit-

able antioxidants.

Physical characteristics of cold - pressed lemon oil as deﬁ ned by the FCC are as

follows.

Optical rotation + 67 ° to + 78 °

Refractive index 1.473 – 1.476

Speciﬁ c gravity 0.846 – 0.851

Solubility 1 mL dissolves in 3 mL of alcohol, sometimes with haze

According to the FCC, distilled lemon oil is a colorless to pale yellow liquid with

the characteristic odor of fresh lemon peel. It is soluble in most ﬁ xed oils, in mineral

oil, and in alcohol, though with haze. It is insoluble in glycerin and propylene glycol.

It may contain suitable antioxidants.

The physical characteristics of distilled lemon oil given by FCC are as follows.

Optical rotation + 55 ° to + 75 °

Refractive index 1.470 – 1.475 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 0.842 – 0.856

Uses

The biggest use of lemon oil is to boost the ﬂ avor of lemon - ﬂ avored soft drinks and

juice - based products such as lemonade. It is a ﬁ ne ﬂ avor for baked products, desserts

and puddings, candies, and wide range of sweetened food products. Lemon oil is used

in alcoholic beverages such as sweet liqueurs, vermouths, and bitters. For all lemon ’ s

uses in food, especially beverages in aqueous media, terpeneless oil is the most

valuable.

A lemon note denotes freshness, and based on this, a lemon aroma is desirable in

toiletries such as soaps, cleaning products, and polishes. For this purpose, petitgrain

oil from leaves and twigs is best suited. Lemon oil is also used in some medicinal

preparations to impart a fresh and hygienic aroma.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Lemon oil (distilled) – 8008 - 56 - 8 182.20 –

Lemon oil (expressed) 2625 84929 - 31 - 7 182.20 –