Attokaran M. Natural Food Flavors and Colorants

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276 Individual Flavors and Colorants

mixed with the juice due to the pressure. Since the density of essential oil is lower

than that of aqueous juice rich in citric acid and sugar, these can be separated by

centrifuging. Usually, both of these are obtained during processing. Cold - pressed oil

is removed ﬁ rst. The remnant is then pressed to express the juice and remaining

essential oil. However, since it is mixed with the juice and is then separated, the oil

may not be as clear as the initial cold - pressed fraction. In some processing plants,

there may be no separation of cold - pressed oil or facility to centrifuge. In such places,

after the juice is extracted, the rind along with the spent inner pulp is kept aside. This

is then taken for steam distillation to obtain steam - distilled lime oil. In fact, a large

portion of lime oil is obtained by this method. Mexico, the West Indies, and India are

producers of distilled oil. In fact, terpeneless distilled oil is produced from this type

of oil.

In the West Indies, much oil is produced by hand processing by what is known as

ecuelling method. The simple equipment for this consists of a shallow bowl usually

made of copper with a central tube leading downward from the center of the bowl.

The bowl is provided with projecting blunt short nails. When the fresh fruits are rolled

over this by hand applying some pressure, the oil cells break, making it possible

for oil to ooze out and be collected through the central tube to a collection vessel

kept below. The oil ﬂ oats on the aqueous phase and can be decanted. This is labor -

intensive work and not particularly hygienic. Moreover, the process yields only about

20% of the theoretical yield. This accounts for about 0.1% of the fruit of average

quality.

Generally, machines using expression meant for lemons are not very suitable for

limes, which have a thin rind. Eventually, suitable machines for the cold pressing of

limes were developed by modifying machines originally meant for lemons and

oranges. These are used in Mexico. The entire fruit is crushed, pulp is separated on a

strainer, and oil separated from clear juice in a high - speed centrifuge (NIIR Board

2009 ).

However, only a small amount of oil is separated by this method. A large amount

of limes are processed for juice and the spent peel is subjected to steam distillation to

obtain distilled oil. In India, only large processors use the cold - pressing method of

obtaining oil. In other cases, the fruit is minced by hand - operated or mechanical

machines. From the pulpy mixture, oil is recovered by steam distillation.

The cold - pressed oil has a superior ﬂ avor quality compared with distilled oil. It is

therefore a practice in some places to dilute the cold - pressed oil with some distilled

oil to reduce its cost. The major producers of distilled oil are the West Indies and

Mexico.

Distilled lime oil, like other citrus oils, is rich in monoterpene hydrocarbons, which

account for about 75%. This is mainly represented by limonene, along with small

quantities of other monoterpene hydrocarbons. Oxygenated constituents include citral,

α - terpineol, 1,8 - cineole, 1,4 - cineole, linalool, and fenchol (Leung and Foster 1996 ).

There are also sesquiterpenes such as bergamotene, β - caryophyllene, and β - bisabolene.

Lime oil contains 0.35% of germacrene B, whose sweet, woody - spicy, geranium - like

aroma distinguishes lime oil from lemon oil. Lime peel oil from Bangladesh obtained

by hydrodistillation on GC - MS analysis revealed 44 compounds, with citral (18.3%),

70 Lime 277

limonene (39.6%), β - pinene (18.7%), and sabinene (5.1%) as the major constituents

(Chowdhury et al. 2006 ).

The composition of cold - pressed oil is similar to that of distilled lime oil, but is

generally free of the degradation product p - cymene. It also contains anthranilates and

some substituted coumarins (Leung and Foster 1996 ).

According to the FCC, cold - pressed lime oil is a yellow, brown - green, or green

liquid, often showing a waxy separation, and has fresh lime odor. It is soluble in most

ﬁ xed oils and in mineral oil but is insoluble in glycerin and in propylene glycol. It

may contain suitable antioxidants.

Physical characteristics as deﬁ ned by the FCC are as follows.

Mexican type Tahitian type

Optical rotation + 35 ° to + 41 ° + 38 ° to + 53 °

Refractive index 1.482 – 1.486 1.476 – 1.486

Speciﬁ c gravity 0.872 – 0.881 0.858 – 0.876

The FCC describes distilled lime oil as a colorless to green - yellow liquid with a

mild citrusy and ﬂ oral odor. It is soluble in most ﬁ xed oils and in mineral oil but is

insoluble in glycerin and in propylene glycol. It may contain suitable antioxidants.

Physical characteristics as deﬁ ned by the FCC are as follows.

Optical rotation + 34 ° to + 47 °

Refractive index 1.474 – 1.477 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 0.855 – 0.863

Solubility 1 mL dissolves in 5 mL of 90% alcohol

Uses

In the cuisine of Mexico, the Southwest United States, and Thailand, in particular,

lime is valued for both its acidity and ﬂ avor. It is used for making hot pickles in Asian

countries.

Lime oil is highly valued in soft drinks. Distilled oil, cold - pressed oil, and deter-

penated oils are all used for this purpose. Additionally, lemon - lime ﬂ avor is highly

valued in alcoholic beverages, candies, baked items, and meat products.

The citrus ﬂ avor represents freshness and, as such, lime oil is used in toiletries,

cleaning lotions, and pharmaceutical preparations to give a good aroma.

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Lime oil, expressed 2631 8008 - 26 - 2 182.20 –

90063 - 52 - 8 –

Lime oil, expressed, terpeneless 2632 68916 - 84 - 7 182.20 –

Lime oil, distilled – 8008 - 26 - 2 182.20 –

278 Individual Flavors and Colorants

References

Chowdhury , Jasim Uddin ; Nandi , Nemai Chandra ; and Uddin , Minhaj . 2006 . Aromatic plants of Bangladesh:

chemical constituents of the leaf and peel oil of Citrus aurantifolia (Christ) Swingle . Indian Perfumer

50 ( 2 ), 54 – 55 .

Leung , Albert Y. ; and Foster , Steven . 1996 . Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients . New York : John

Wiley and Sons , pp. 352 – 354 .

NIIR Board . 2009 . The Complete Technology Book of Essential Oils . Delhi : Asia Paciﬁ c Business Press ,

pp. 189 – 215 .

Introduction

Long pepper was recognized in Greece well before Christ; Hippocrates described it

more as a medical plant than a spice. Historians might have confused black pepper

and long pepper. It was recognized as a spice in ancient Europe before the discovery

of the New World, although Pliny erroneously classiﬁ ed both black pepper and long

pepper as originating from the same plant. However, in the ﬁ rst book of botany,

Theophrastus clearly distinguished them. With the advent of red pepper (chili), the

importance of long pepper declined. With improved processing and marketing of black

pepper, long pepper was slowly sidelined. While it still plays a part in Asian cuisine,

in the Western world it is almost a forgotten spice. Surprisingly, long pepper still has

a place in Islamic North African cuisine, where it was introduced by Arab traders

operating in the East.

Plant Material

The long pepper plant is a slender, aromatic climber seen in evergreen forests. It is

also cultivated, since it has more uses than simply as a spice. Like black pepper, there

is rooting at nodes and attachment to the support tree. Although long pepper is similar

to black pepper, the plant is not as high. The branches are erect and slightly swollen

at nodes. The leaves are alternate, the lower ones broadly ovate and the upper ones

more oblong. The leaves are thinner than those of black pepper and show mild heat

when chewed. The ﬂ owers appear in solitary spikes (Warrier 1995 ). Its fruits are

berries, small but completely buried in the ﬂ eshy spike, unlike those of black pepper

where bigger berries are attached to the spike only at the stalk end. The berries are

green but turn red when ripe and black when dried, as in the case of black pepper.

The dried spikes (see Photo 20 ) are acrid, as well as being mildly thermogenic,

carminative, expectorative, laxative, and digestive. Thus, it ﬁ nds use in the treatment

of a wide range of diseases in Ayurvedic therapy. The plant is cultivated in different

parts of India.

Essential Oil

Dried long pepper, on size reduction and steam distillation, gives an essential oil with

0.7% yield (Pruthi 1976 ). It has a spicy aroma resembling that of pepper oil and ginger

Long Pepper

Piper longum L ( Piperaceae )

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280 Individual Flavors and Colorants

oil. It shows optical rotation of 40 ° 1 ′ , refractive index of 1.4769, and speciﬁ c gravity

of 0.8484.

Oleoresin

This author ’ s lab has obtained a volatile oil yield of 0.8 – 1.4%. Extraction of deoiled

spice with a mixture of hexane and acetone gives a resin fraction with a yield of 6 – 7%.

When volatile oil is added, the oleoresin gives an overall yield of 6.8 – 8.4%. The

oleoresin has a volatile oil content of 6 – 16% and a piperine content of 1.8 – 2.5%.

The oleoresin is a greenish - brown, oily liquid with a mild herbal aroma and a weak

and delayed hot taste. When it is kept for some time on the tongue, there is a feeling

of slight numbness. The oleoresin can be diluted with vegetable oil or glyceryl

monooleate.

Uses

Long pepper and its extractives can be used in food when only mild hotness is

required. Today, very little is used in food as ﬂ avor. However, long pepper retains its

use in medicine. The berries are effective for treatment of diseases of the respiratory

tract, as a counterirritant and analgesic for applying locally for muscular pain and

inﬂ ammation, and, taken internally, as a carminative and general tonic. In Ayurvedic

Photo 20. Dried spike of long pepper. See color insert.

71 Long Pepper 281

therapy, a mixture of black pepper, ginger, and long pepper forms trikatu (Sankrit for

“ three acids ” ), which is used as a rejuvenating medicine.

Reference

Pruthi , J.S. 1976 . Spices and Condiments . New Delhi : National Book Trust , pp. 189 – 191 .

Warrier , P.K. 1995 . Indian Medicinal Plants , vol. 4 . Madras : Orient Longman , pp. 290 – 296 .

Introduction

Lovage may have originated in China. Phoenicians and, later, Greeks and Romans,

used it before Christ not only as a ﬂ avor but also as a medicine and in cosmetics. It

probably thrived ﬁ rst in Mediterranean Europe and later in England where, as garden

lovage, it is still cultivated occasionally for its medicinally useful root and, to a lesser

extent, for its leaves and seeds. It has a coloring component that adds a crimson color

to water or alcohol but turns blue if made alkaline. Lovage was a household medicinal

remedy a few centuries ago but was also valued for its ﬁ ne aroma. An infusion of

lovage has antiseptic properties when applied to wounds and is also a weak antidote

to indigestion.

Plant Material

Lovage is a tall perennial plant, which resembles the angelica plant. Its cylindrical

hollow stem grows to a height of 2 – 3 m. It has bright green leaves, which grow alter-

nately. It has thick ﬂ eshy roots, resembling somewhat those of the carrot, but with a

gray - brown outside color and white inside. The plant has terminal light yellow ﬂ owers

growing in clusters. It has small, oval, yellow to brown seeds.

Growing of lovage is trouble - free. Propagation is either by division of roots or by

seeds. Rich and moist but well - drained soil and sunny weather are ideal. Almost the

entire plant has use. Roots, leaves, and seeds have value in medicine. The young stem,

almost like angelica, has an aroma and some use as a ﬂ avoring material. Its fruit, often

referred to as seed after drying, and leaves have value as ﬂ avor. The dried fruits, used

as a spice, are often confused with ajwain. The stem is sometimes used like celery for

salad.

It is the root that is important as a spice and for making essential oil. Freshly dug

cut roots are washed, sliced to 1 – 1.3 cm thickness, and carefully dried. If oven - dried,

the temperature should be 50 – 55 ° C.

Essential Oil

The literature on the components of lovage root oil is somewhat sketchy. Terpineol is

the major component (Farrell 1990 ). It is present to the extent of 0.3 – 1.0%. A very

Lovage

Levisticum ofﬁ cinale L. Koch; Angelica levinticum

Baillon ( Umbelliferae )

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284 Individual Flavors and Colorants

old analysis of herb oil from France gives the physical characteristics as follows

(Guenther 1950 ).

Optical rotation + 0 ° 40 ′ to + 1 ° 20 ′

Refractive index 1.5502 – 1.5591 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 1.034 – 1.057

Solubility 1 mL dissolves in 1 – 2 mL 80% alcohol

According to the FCC, lovage oil obtained from the lovage root has a yellowish -

greenish - brown to deep brown color and the characteristic aromatic odor and taste of

lovage. It is soluble in most ﬁ xed oils and slightly soluble, with opalescence, in

mineral oil. It is relatively insoluble in glycerin and propylene glycol. The oil becomes

darker and more viscous under the inﬂ uence of air and light.

Its physical characteristics as deﬁ ned by the FCC are as follows.

Optical rotation – 1 ° to + 5 °

Refractive index 1.536 – 1.554 at 20 ° C

Speciﬁ c gravity 1.030 – 1.057

Solubility 1 mL dissolves in 4 mL of 95% alcohol, sometimes with

slight turbidity

There is very little production of oleoresin. Because of the medicinal properties of

its nonvolatile constituents, oleoresin would be a convenient form for use as a food

ﬂ avoring. Additionally, there is report of the presence of coloring components, which

give a crimson - red color to alcohol extract.

Uses

Lovage extractives have potential for use in processed foods such as soup, baked

goods, cheese spreads, and sauces. It is a minor component of ﬂ avoring used for

tobacco, liqueurs, cordials, confectionary, and medicinal preparations. It is effective

in pharmaceutical preparations for stimulating secretion of gastric juice and for reduc-

ing salt in body ﬂ uids (Farrell 1990 ).

Identiﬁ cation Numbers

FEMA No. CAS US/CFR E - No.

Lovage root oil 2651 8016 - 31 - 7 172.510 –

84837 - 06 - 9

Lovage extract 2650 8016 - 31 - 7 172.510 –

Lovage leaf oil – 8016 - 31 - 7 – –

References

Farrell , Kenneth T. 1990 . Spices, Condiments and Seasonings , 2nd edition . New York : Chapman and Hall ,

pp. 124 – 126 .

Guenther , Ernest . 1950 . The Essential Oils . Malabar, FL : Robert Krieger Publishing , vol. 4 , pp. 649 – 654 .

Introduction

The nutmeg tree yields mace, which is a bright red lacey cage covering the nutmeg

shell. Its history is intertwined with that of nutmeg.

Plant Material

Since mace is derived from the tree that produces nutmeg, the details about the plant

are the same as those for nutmeg (see Chapter 78 on nutmeg). The distribution is also

the same as that of nutmeg and therefore these details are not repeated.

Mace is the soft, reticulated aril of nutmeg. It has a bright scarlet color and very

delicate ﬂ avor, though it is somewhat similar to nutmeg. The size of the thin, broken

aril is dependent on the size of the round nutmeg. Nutmeg, being a round kernel, needs

long hours of sun drying. Color is not important in the case of nutmeg. Mace, being

thin and soft, needs delicate handling and drying. It is this need for different handling

that has caused the two to be considered as separate spices.

The different grades of mace are: top quality, bright orange - colored “ Banda mace ” ;

next in quality, “ Java estate mace ” which is golden yellow with streaks of red; next,

“ Siauwa mace, ” with lighter color and less aroma; and the lowest grade, “ Papua

mace. ” There are also some lower grades derived from other Myristica spices.

The dry yield of mace is only about 3.5% of the nutmeg. Besides the delicate aroma

and exotic color, the low yield is a factor in making mace a costlier spice than nutmeg.

Chemistry

Dry mace has 6.5% protein, 48% carbohydrate, 4% crude ﬁ ber, and 24.5% extract-

ables, mainly consisting of triglycerides and essential oil. As in nutmeg, myristicine

is the important oxygenated terpene. Water - soluble matter includes leucocyanidin . The

fat - soluble color is identiﬁ ed as lycopene, similar to that present in the tomato

(Gopalakrishnan et al . 1979 ).

Essential Oil

On steam distillation, dry mace gives an essential oil with yield of 8 – 9% for Sri

Lankan and Indonesian samples. Indian mace generally gives a lower yield of 6%.

Mace

Myristica fragrans H ( Myristicaceae )

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Natural Food Flavors and Colorants Mathew Attokaran