Biermann Ch. Handbook of Pulping and Papermaking

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

It is said that "if you give a man a fish, he

eats for a day; if you teach a man to fish, he eats

for a lifetime." This adage represents the entire

aim of science, that is, to characterize or explain

as wide a range of phenomena or conditions as

possible with the least number of rules. In short,

science generalizes to as large a degree as possi-

ble.

To memorize a formula that applies to only

one set of conditions is no more learning science

than giving a man a fish is teaching him how to

fish. Yet many cultures, including our own,

continue to teach by requiring memorization of

rules or formulas. Students wind up learning

formulas they do not understand with little idea of

the underlying assumptions upon which they are

based (and conditions to which they apply.) The

result is students who show very little imagination

and extension of thought to solve new problems,

which is the very essence of science. The author

has seen students with a great deal of tenacity, but

not creativity, spend hours upon hours late into the

night attempting to find a solution to a problem by

searching dozens of books, rather than attempting

to solve it by thinking it through, using their own

internal resources.

This book stresses concepts and gives a series

of problems to demonstrate understanding of the

concepts rather than just the memorization of

"facts";

the difference results in the molding of a

mind into that of a scientist in preference to mold-

ing a mind into an insignificantly small, unreliable

data base.

I hope instructors who use this book make

the tests open book—after all, life in the mill is

open book—there is no point in teaching any other

way. Some of the problems in this book are

deliberately irrelevant to anything one might

encounter in reality to demonstrate the wide

applicability of certain techniques and to discour-

age the student from trying to find a reference

book to solve the problem. Frequent "curve balls"

are included to keep one thinking in terms of the

"big picture"; that is, when problem solving in a

mill, one is not going to have all the necessary

information delivered on a silver platter. It is

important to figure out what information is re-

quired, what information is at hand, and where to

obtain the remainder of the information to solve a

problem. Often it is not what we do not know,

but rather what we think v/e know that is not true,

that causes us problems.

This book is designed as an educational tool

for pulp and paper science courses and a reference

book to those in industry. It is a scientific refer-

ence concentrating on principles of

pulp

and paper

processes rather than the multitudinous types of

equipment available to carry out these processes.

TAPPI Standard methods are emphasized, but

many of the TAPPI Standards give references to

related methods such as those of ASTM, CPPA,

SCAN, ISO, and APPITA.

Material is presented roughly in the same

order as material flows through the pulp and paper

mill. The first section of the book covers funda-

mentals, and later sections cover more advanced

treatments. It is impossible to present so much

information on so many diverse areas and supply

all of the necessary background in each section

without undue duplication. Also, one does not

like to burden the novice with details only impor-

tant to a few investigators. It is appropriate to use

the extensive index as the ultimate, alphabetical

guide to this volume to find all of the material

available on a particular topic.

The author welcomes your comments regard-

ing this book and suggestions for teaching aids.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank all of the people

and companies who contributed information,

photographs, and other help. Special thanks to the

Pope and Talbot mill in Halsey, Oregon, the

James River mill in Halsey, Oregon, the James

River mill in Camas, Washington, and the Boise

Cascade Corporate Research Center in Portland,

Oregon for providing valuable help. The sketches

by the late John Ainsworth were used with gener-

ous permission of the Thilmany Paper Division of

International Paper Co.

Stephen Temple of Black Clawson was

instrumental in providing information and figures

of his company's equipment, as were Bonny

Rinker of Andritz Sprout-Bauer, Inc.; Barbara

Crave and Elaine Cowlin of Beloit Corp.; Henry

Chen of James River Corp. in regards to Crown

Zellerbach Corp. material; Robert Gill of Pfizer,

Inc.;

Manuel Delgado of Straw Pulping Technolo-

gy; R. H. Collins of Kamyr, Inc.; Jody Estabrook

of Fiberprep; Maria Krofta of Krofta Eng. Corp.;

Steven Khail of Manitowoc Eng. Co.; Garth

Russell of Sunds Defibrator; and many others who

provided information for this book.

Alfred Soeldner took many of the excellent

scanning electron micrographs that are shown in

this volume. An extensive resource of

notes

in the

OSU pulp and paper files was used in this work;

contributions to these files were made by Walter

Bublitz, James Frederick, Jr., Philip Humphrey,

and others, although it was not always clear who

supplied any given information. Alton Campbell,

of the University of Idaho, contributed a copy of

his class lecture notes, which were helpful to this

work. Michael Haas, of Longview Fibre, contrib-

uted a set of the books prepared for the Pulp and

Paper Manufacturing Technology Program offered

through Lower Columbia College. Andre Caron,

of the National Council of Air and Stream Im-

provement, supplied information concerning

environmental regulations and control. Myoung-

ku Lee prepared the index and assisted with many

aspects of this work. Troy Townsend and Jinfeng

Zhuang reviewed much of the manuscript.

Victor Hansen reviewed the paper machine

wet end section and contributed much information

on water removal on flat wire machines.

Special acknowledgment is made to the late

Kyosti Sarkanen who inspired me to start this

project, sent copies of his class lecture notes to

me,

and was to have collaborated on this work.

The editorial and production staff at Academic

Press contributed substantially to this work. One

could not ask for a more reasonable publisher.

Additional recognition is given to Jerry Hull,

my right-hand man who runs my laboratory when

I am not to be found for days at a time, for nu-

merous suggestions of research activities and com-

ments on this work, and editorial help on the

manuscript. I would especially like to thank my

wife,

Lora Jasman, M.D., for numerous sugges-

tions and editorial help.

Many other people have been involved in the

review process, but must remain publicly un-

thanked as they remain unknown to me.

This book was typeset from WordPerfect®

5.1.

Many of the drawings were done with

Generic CADD'^'^ 5.0. Many of the chemical

structures were drawn with Wimp''^'^2001. Many

graphs were drawn with Quattro®Pro 3.0. The

original copy was printed on a Hewlett Packard

LaserJet 4 with CG Times font.

A conscientious effort has been made to

include trademarks when cited in the text. Any

omission is unintentional, and I welcome notifica-

tion of any oversights.

The inclusion of color plates has been made

possible by the generous support of the following

companies and organizations:

The Black Clawson Company

Contributors to Oregon State Univ.

Pacific Section Tappi

Rhone Poulenc

Specialty Chemicals

Basic Chemicals

Willamette Industries, Incorporated

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

ABBREVIATIONS

ABS

AFLA

AFPA

AKD

AOX

API

APMP

APP

ASA

ASB

ASTM

BAT

BACT

bbl

BCTMP

BDU

BLRB

BOD

BPT

Byu

CIS

C2S

CAA

CAAA

CDC

CED

CEMS

CFD

cfm

COD

CPPA

CSF

CTMP

CTR

CWA

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene

terpolymer

alternating current

another four letter acronym

American Forest and Paper Assoc.

alkyl ketene dimer (size)

adsorbable organic halides

American Paper Institute (now AFPA)

alkaline peroxide mechanical pulping

alkaline peroxide CTMP

alkenyl succinic anhydride (size)

aerated stabilization basins

American Society for Testing and

Materials

anthraquinone

best available technology economically

achievable (the standard of the 1987

CWA; it is more stringent than BPT)

best available control technology

barrel

bleached CTMP

bone-dry unit

black liquor recovery boiler

biochemical (biological) oxygen demand

best practicable technology (standard of

the 1977 CWA)

British thermal unit

coated one side

coated two sides

Clean Air Act (1970, 1990)

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977

cross (paper) machine direction

Centers for Disease Control

cupriethylenediamine (viscosity test)

continuous emission monitoring system

computational fluid dynamics

cubic feet per minute

international color scale

chemical oxygen demand

Canadian Pulp and Paper Association

Canadian Standard freeness

chemi-thermomechanical pulp

cationic titration ratio

Clean Water Act of 1977. The Febru-

ary, 1989 amendment to the CWA is

called the Water Quality Act of 1987

DADMAC

DARS

DCS

DDA

DDJ

DIN

dpi

EBS

ECF

EDTA

EEC

EMC

EPA

ESP

FAS

FCG

FDA

FIFO

FGR

FPR

FPAR

FSP

GCC

GPC

gsm

HLB

HMWT

HPLC

HST

IPST

ISE

ISO

LMWT

poly(diallyldimethylammonium

chloride)

direct alkali recovery system

direct current

distributive control system

dihydro-dihydroxy anthracene, see SAQ

dynamic drainage (Britt) jar

Deutsche Industrie Normen

(German Industry Standard)

degree of polymerization or differential

pressure (across dryer drums)

dots per inch

ethylenebisstearamide

elemental chlorine free (bleaching)

ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

European Economic Community

equilibrium moisture content

ethylene oxide

Environmental Protection Agency

electrostatic precipitator;

emergency shutdown procedure

formamidine sulfmic acid

fme ground carbonate

Food and Drug Administration (U.S.)

first in—first out (rotation method)

flue gas recirculation

first pass retention

first pass ash retention

fiber saturation point

ground calcium carbonate

gel permeation chromatography

grams per square meter

hydrophilic-lipophilic balance

high molecular weight (polymers)

high performance liquid chromatog-

raphy

Hercules size tester

hardwood

Institute of Paper Science and Technol-

ogy; formerly, the IPC

infrared

ion-specific electrode

International Organization for Stan-

dardization

breaking length

low molecular weight (polymers)

xiu

LTV

LWC

MCGR

MCoD

MCC

MEE

MSDS

NCASI

NCG

NCR

NIR

NMR

NSPS

NSSC

occ

ocs

OMG

ONP

ORP

OSHA

PAC

PAM

PCC

PEI

PEO

PGW

Pima

PLI

PPI

ppm

ppt

ppq

psi

psig

long tube vertical bodies 1

lightweight coated (groundwood)

moisture content on wet weight basis

moisture content on oven-dry basis

modified continuous cooking

(paper) machine direction

multiple-effect evaporators

melamine-formaldehyde

machine glazed

material safety data sheet

metric ton

National Council for Air and Stream

Improvement

non-condensable gases (pulping)

no carbon required (carbonless) paper

near infrared

nuclear magnetic resonance

spectroscopy

New Source Performance Standard

neutral sulfite semi-chemical (pulp)

old corrugated containers

outdoor chip storage

old magazines

old newspapers

oxidation-reduction potential

Occupational Safety and Health

Administration

polyaluminum chloride

polyacrylamide

precipitated calcium carbonate

polyethylene

polyethylenimine

polyethyleneoxide

pressure groundwood (pulp)

-log[Hn

-log(A:) where x is the argument

Paper Industry Management Association

pounds per linear inch

paper machine

propylene oxide

Pulp & Paper International

parts per million

parts per trillion

parts per quadrillion

pounds per square inch (pressure)

pounds per square inch gauge

PTFE

PVC

RCRA

RDH

rpm

s„

SAQ

SARA

SBR

SEC

SEM

SGW

SMA

SOP

SPC

SQC

TAPPI

TCDD

TCP

TIS

TLA

TMDL

TMP

TOCl

TOX

tpy

TQM

TRS

TSS

UFGC

UFGL

WPCA

WQA

WRV

teflon, polytetrafluorethylene

polyvinylchloride

Resource Conservation and Recovery

Act of 1976 (amended 1984)

rapid displacement heating

relative humidity

revolutions per minute

a secondary cell wall layer

soluble anthraquinone (see DDA)

Superfund Amendments and

Reauthorization Act of 1986

styrene butadiene rubber

size exclusion chromatography

scanning electron microscopy

stone groundwood (pulp)

styrene maleic anhydride

standard operating procedure

statistical process control

statistical quality control

stainless steel

softwood

metric ton

(ton written out is 2000 lb)

Technical Association of the Pulp and

Paper Industry

2,3,7,8

tetrachlorodibenzo-/7-dioxin

totally chlorine free (bleaching)

technical information sheet (TAPPI)

three letter acronym

total maximum daily loads

thermomechanical pulp

total organically bound chloride

total organic halides

tons per year

total quality control

total reduced sulfur

total suspended solids

urea-formaldehyde

ultra fine grounf carbonates

ultrafine ground limestone

Useful Method (TAPPI)

ultraviolet

water gravity (suction leg)

Water Pollution Control Ac^

Water Quality Act of 1987

water retention value

xiv

LIST OF COLOR PLATES

Olympic peninsula forest in Washington

State.

Mt. St. Helens, Washington volcanic

shock-wave destruction (after five years)

showing where trees were snapped as if

they were tooth picks.

A logging operation in Washington State.

Advanced wood decay by brown rot (left)

and white rot fungi (right).

Microscopic view of wood decay fungi

(arrow points to hyphae).

6. Barking drum 14.5 ft in diameter by 100

ft long. The first insert shows the logs at

the dam, and the second insert shows the

inside of the drum during construction.

Courtesy of Manitowoc Engineering Co.

14.

Double wire press suitable for market pulp

production, pulp washing, bleaching, or

stock thickening. Courtesy of Andritz

Sprout-Bauer.

15.

Diagram of double wire press for brown

stock washing. Courtesy of Andritz

Sprout-Bauer.

16.

Selected views of a double wire press used

for wet lap market pulp. A) Headbox ap-

proach, B) headbox and slice, C) dewater-

ing with a drop leg, D) presses, E) wet

lap,

and F) cut and stacked wet-lap.

17.

Some black liquor guns of a kraft recovery

boiler. The inserts show the liquor being

fired into the ftirnace.

18.

Several views of smelt flowing from the

bottom of a kraft recovery boiler.

Ring barker with an insert of a modular,

rotary-head option to debark stringy-bark

species such as cedar and eucalyptus.

Courtesy of Valon Kone Brunette, Ltd.

8. Flail barker. Courtesy of Manitowoc

Engineering Co.

9. Chip thickness screening system. Courte-

sy of Rader Co., Inc.

10.

Chip truck being dumped.

11.

Straw pulping for brown paper. A) The

straw is chopped in a hammermill, B)

pulped at 100°C, and C) the pulping li-

quor is pressed from the pulp. Courtesy

of Straw Pulping Technology.

12.

Two brown stock washers in series.

13.

Pulp and handsheets of overthick (left)

chips,

accept chips (center), and fines after

kraft pulping.

19.

The inside of the lime kiln near the exit.

20.

Handsheets at various stages of bleaching.

From upper right, counter clockwise the

pulp samples are 1) unscreened, 2)

screened, 3) after chlorination, 4) after

alkali extraction, 5) after hypochlorite

treatment, and 6) after hydrogen peroxide

bleaching.

21.

Several stages of washing in a four stage

bleach plant.

22.

A bleach tower of a hypochlorite stage.

23.

Twin refiner. The rotating double-sided

inner disk with ribbon feed (red) and axle

is between two stationary disks (yellow).

The insert shows the refiner open in the

center for easy plate changing. Courtesy

of Andritz Sprout-Bauer.

24.

Laboratory setup for measuring cellulose

viscosity in solutions of a copper salt.

Xvi LIST OF COLOR PLATES

25.

"Homemade" Cobb size tester.

26.

Hercules size tester.

27.

Scott bond test. The figure shows the test

device and the first strip of double-sided

tape being applied. The insert demon-

strates the test immediately before failure.

28.

Wax pick test.

29.

Brightness tester. The insert (blocking the

front panel) shows the sample test area

with the light sources on each side.

30.

Hooper PSV II Pressure Screen. Cour-

tesy of Andritz Sprout-Bauer.

31.

S-Screen. Courtesy of Beloit Corp.

32.

Ultra-V^^ Screen. Courtesy of Black

Clawson, Shartle Div.

33.

Top Flyte™ "C" former. Courtesy of

Black Clawson-Kennedy.

34.

Suction roll. Courtesy of Black Clawson-

Kennedy.

35.

Dryer cans. Courtesy of Black Clawson-

Kennedy.

36.

Dryer cans from a linerboard

mill.

Notice

the threading ropes.

37.

Roll handling with 40 ton capacity crane.

Courtesy of Manitowoc Engineering Co.

38.

The bottom view of a 60 m^ batch pulper,

with dilution water addition, and an 8 mm

round hole screen.

39.

VerticeF*^ flotation deinking system with

two levels of aeration. Courtesy of

Fiberprep.

40.

Primary clarifier (foreground) and aerated

stabilization basin (ASB) in the back-

ground. Notice the oxygenation of the

water in the ASB.

41.

Demonstration of subtractive color combi-

nations as in the use of translucent inks on

white paper for color printing.

42.

Demonstration of grid angles in four color

printing.

43.

Additive primaries with the three primary

colors shining on white paper in overlap-

ping circles in otherwise darkness.

44.

Vascular cambium of a softwood with the

xylem stained red and the phloem stained

green.

45.

Hardwood parenchyma

types:

a) marginal

of yellow poplar, b) reticulate of hickory,

and c) vascicentric of ash.

INTRODUCTION AND THE LITERATURE

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PAPERMAKING

The availability of writing material has

always gone hand in hand with the development of

society. The earliest media for writing was the

stone tablet. Egyptians invented papyrus around

3000 B.C. Papyrus is made by crisscrossing thin

sections of the papyrus reed, which is ubiquitous

in the marshy delta of the Nile River. Papyrus is

held together by natural glues within the reed

when pressure is applied. The papyrus was

smoothed by rubbing with smooth stones. Around

200 B.C. parchment, the tanned skin of sheep or

goats,

was developed. Parchment is now a high

quaUty grade of paper made from vegetable fibers.

The invention of paper is credited to Ts'ai

Lun of China, who, in the year 105 A.D., was

working on a papyrus substitute by decree of

Emperor Hoti. Within 20 years he had paper

from the bark of mulberry trees that was treated

with lime, bamboo, and cloth. The Chinese

considered paper a key invention and kept this a

closely guarded secret for over five centuries until

the technology slowly made its way westward.

The Arabs captured a Chinese city containing a

paper mill in the early 700s and from this started

their own papermaking industry. Paper was first

made in England in 1496. The first U.S. mill was

built in 1690, the Rittenhouse mill, Germemtown,

Pennsylvania.

The development of the paper machine is the

most important milestone of the industry. Louis

Robert, working at the paper mill owned by

Ledger Didot, made his first model of the

continuous paper machine in 1796 near Paris. The

first model was very small and made strips of

paper about as wide as tape. He received a

French patent for his machine in 1799, at the age

of 37, based on drawings he had submitted.

Shortly after being awarded the patent he began

construction based on these drawings.

Development of the paper machine was led

by the two Fourdrinier brothers, Henry and Sealy,

who,

in 1801, bought one-third interest in the

British patent rights of Robert's machine. They

hired Bryan Donkin who took three years to

develop the first practical paper machine, which

was in operation at Two Waters Mill, Hertz,

England, in 1804. A sketch of this machine is

shown in Fig. 1-1. Donkin's company continued

to manufacture and improve the fourdrinier

machine for many years. His company supplied

most of the early fourdrinier machines throughout

the world.

At about the same time John Dickinson, a

colleague and friend of Donkin, was working on

his cylinder machine, which was refined by 1809.

In fact, both Dickinson and Donkin contributed

important ideas to each of these machines. For

example, in 1817, John Dickinson became the first

person to mention steam-heated drying cylinders.

He used cast iron cylinders complete with

stationary siphon tubes. In 1820, Thomas

Crompton added dryer felts using single tier

Couch

Stock Vat

Fig. 1-1. Diagram of Bryan Donkin's paper machine, circa 1804. Redrawn from J. Ainsworth,

Papermaking, ®1957 Thilmany Paper Co., with permission.

INTRODUCTION AND THE LITERATURE

Table 1-1. The production

machine speed with time.^

of paper and

Year

1810

1860

1880

1900

1920

1940

1965

1990

paper

use

(10*

tons)

0.2

0.5

2.3

5.5

Record

Paper

Machine

Speed

(ft/min)

200

500

1000

1600

3000

6800

Record

wire

width

(in.)

160

205

320

360

380

^These are approximate values to show a trend.

Maximum speeds apply to tissue machines, which

tend to much faster than other machines.

drying. Double tier driers soon followed.

Crompton studied textile drying, which may have

provided the thought for using drier felts. Drying

cylinders and cylinder arrangements have not

changed appreciably in concept, since this time.

The dandy roll was patented in 1825 by the

two brothers John and Christopher Phipps of Kent

county. They made rolls from 4 to 12 inches (10-

30 cm) in diameter. Some people claim that John

Marshall may have been the first person to make

a "riding roller", and he began manufacturing

them in 1826.

M. Canson of Annonay, France put a suction

box under the-wire of his fourdrinier machine in

1826,

as had already been done on the cylinder

machine, but kept this a secret.

In 1828, George Dickinson received a patent

for a machine that, among many other things, had

the forerunner of the suction roll. It was,

however, about 80 years later, with the invention

of the cycloidal vacuum pulp, that suction rolls

were used in the wet end or press section. In

1829,

John Dickinson used a reverse press with

Fig. 1-2. Pulp logs leaving the forest.

Reprinted from

History

and Description of Paper

permission.

double felting to decrease the two-sidedness of

paper. In fact, many of the important inventions

of the paper machine were discovered within the

first three decades of Robert's invention.

With the invention of the paper machine, the

amount of paper that could be produced was soon

limited by the fiber supply, since cotton was the

main constituent in paper. During the mid-

nineteenth century the technology for converting

wood to pulp suitable for paper was developed.

With a plentiful supply of pulp available, the

amount of paper production was then closely

related to improvements in paper machine speeds

and widths as shown in Table 1-1. The pro-

duction of paper in the U.S. increased by a factor

of 10 in the 19th century and almost 50 in the 20th

century. In 1950, the U.S. made 60% of the

world's paper, by 1990 this was less than 30%.

Recently, paper production in developed

countries seems to be limited once again by fiber

supply. Gone are the days when huge logs went

directly to pulp mills as shown in Fig. 1-2. Much

roundwood is obtained from precommercial thin-

nings using skidders to drag them to the roadside

as shown in Fig. 1-3. In the Northwest U.S.

wood prices are high enough that some mills are

now pulping construction wastes, pallets, and other

materials that are chipped. Even chemical pulping

of old corrugated boxes is practiced in parts of the

world to stretch fiber resources. Fig. 1-4 gives

the steps in making paper for a present-day mill.

Regardless of the method of making paper,

whether by machine or by hand, there are some

common steps that are shown in Fig. 1-5. The

raw material (in this case the inner bark of cedar)

is pulped to allow separation of the individual

INTRODUCTION TO PAPERMAKING

vegetable fibers. The pulp is then washed to

remove pulping chemicals. The pulp may then be

bleached if it is to be used in white papers. The

pulp is treated with beating or refining to separate

the fibers from each other and to roughen the

surface of the fiber. Most papers do not use

adhesives, but rely on hydrogen bonding between

fibers.

Paper is then formed by running a dilute

slurry of pulp through a screen, and then most of

the water is allowed to drain out by gravity.

Additional water is then pressed from the sheet.

The last water is removed by evaporation.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE

LITERATURE

It is very important to be able to access

articles in the scientific literature in particular

subject areas. Information is one of the most

underused resources in the pulp and paper

industry. The information in original research

papers and other references can be used to solve

many problems and questions that arise in pulp

and paper mills. If you are not aware of a

particular journal or reference book mentioned in

this chapter or how it is used, be sure to ask your

librarian for assistance. Many libraries can obtain

copies of articles or books, which they do not

have in the library, through interlibrary loan

programs. The lists in this chapter are by no

means exhaustive; however, some of the more

routinely used references are included.

The literature can be divided into the primary

literature and the secondary literature. The

primary literature consists of patents, journal

articles, and proceedings of meeting presentations.

This is the most current information and the most

difficult to access. One can keep abreast of only

a few journals. To fiilly use this resource, one

should periodically conduct library searches with

the abstract indices in areas of critical importance

to a mill. For example, if a mill is considering

conversion to alkaline papermaking, one would

want to obtain as much current information as

possible on the subject to save downtime during

the conversion. The primary literature is never

obsolete. Indeed, it is often unportant to go back

to the primary literature to check the source of

equations, tables, etc. used in the secondary

literature. Often, on investigation of an original

article, one learns that information that has

become widespread is being used under

inappropriate conditions.

The secondary literature is inforr ^don that is

summarized in books, monographs, reference

books, and so forth. It tends to be older and may

l|iil;^

f"'^:mm^

|J|.

1:1%".

!|)*

^-fe~^\.""i •'>- _

|Si,;y.,,4,*j,*

WW':

^' '*^jflj"'t

*^»s^',':.

Fig. 1-3. Skidders drag small trees from the forest so the remaining trees can grow faster.

Reprinted from Making Pulp and

Papery