Blackburn J.A., Dulmus C.N. (Editors). Handbook of gerontology: evidence-based approaches to theory, practice, and policy

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

416 E

VIDENCE

-B

ASED

AMILY AND

OMMUNITY

RACTICE

support. All participants received services for a period of 1 year. The services in-

cluded case management, advocacy, legal information, physical health assessment,

support groups, and parenting education. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the

strengths-based case management model produced gains in self-confidence and a

greater sense of empowerment (Whitely, White, Kelley, & Yourke, 1999).

Finally, Grant, Gordon, and Cohen (1997) reported on a grandparent program

that took advantage of an existing partnership between a local hospital and

school to provide medical and psychosocial services to improve the functioning

of both grandparents and grandchildren. By delivering the program within a pe-

diatric school health program, the staff was able to engage grandparents by fo-

cusing early meetings on health education concerns. This helped to minimize

resistance to participation in the program and to keep people engaged as the

content of the group meetings with grandparents changed to address more per-

sonal issues.

In summary, there is a burgeoning of psychosocial interventions to help grand-

parents cope with the demands of parenting a young child in later life, but unfor-

tunately the rigorous evaluation of these programs has not kept pace with their

development. For the most part, the current program evaluations are based on rel-

atively small and highly selected samples. In addition, except for the evaluations

by Hayslip (2003) and McCallion et al. (2004), all of the studies have used a one-

group pre/posttest or posttest-only design, leading to many threats to internal

validity. Much of the evidence to support the efficacy of these interventions is an-

ecdotal and based on nonstandardized measures with unknown reliability and

validity. Finally, none of the interventions has been replicated in independent

studies. Therefore, the evidence base for the efficacy of psychosocial grandparent

caregiver programs is quite weak and their implementation in clinical practice

should be done with caution.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND POLICY

This review of psychosocial treatment programs suggests core program features

that provide guidelines for the development and implementation of interventions

for grandparent caregivers in clinical practice. Social support and education serve

as the building blocks for effective psychosocial treatments for grandparent care-

givers. Social support in the form of group meetings and sharing of personal sto-

ries helps grandparents decrease their sense of isolation and realize that they are

not alone. This approach has proven very successful for other care-giving groups.

The educational component should be a major component of any intervention as

grandparents have great and varied needs for information on parenting skills,

managing behavior problems, community resources, health care, and custody

laws as well as help with financial and future planning. A psychoeducation pro-

gram is best delivered by an interdisciplinary team because of the complex multi-

ple financial, legal, and health care problems faced by grandparent caregivers. In

addition to the core features of support and education, case management services

are typically an integral part of programs as grandparents often need assistance

securing basic services and health care for their grandchildren.

Practitioners should tailor psychosocial treatment to meet the unique needs of

different types of grandparenting situations. Single grandmother caregivers in

skipped-generation families with limited financial resources may need more as-

Parenting Grandchildren 417

sistance to alleviate their economic hardships, whereas grandmother caregivers in

three-generation families may need help learning communication and problem-

solving skills for reducing conflict with the child’s parents over parenting prac-

tices (Harrison, Richman, & Vittimberga, 2000). For grandparents in their 70s and

80s, their primary concern may be planning for their grandchild’s future care after

the grandparents’ death. Therefore, although grandparent caregivers have many

similar needs and share many common concerns, we must not lose sight of the fact

that there still exists considerable heterogeneity in need requiring individualized

treatments to best meet these diverse needs.

In addition, programs and services should be easily accessible without pub-

licly stigmatizing the grandparent as having a problem. Grandmothers may be

reluctant to seek services at mental health agencies (Shore & Hayslip, 1994) or

apply for public income assistance (Scarcella, Ehrle, & Geen, 2003) because of

stigma. Given the higher rates of attendance at religious services among older

adults and the high value grandparents place on the education of their grand-

children, programs should be offered in churches or schools to facilitate partic-

ipation of grandparents who may be most in need of assistance (Park, 2004;

Rogers & Henkin, 2000).

Research on grandparent caregivers also has important implications for so-

cial policy and formal economic support systems. Given the higher poverty

rates among families headed by grandparent caregivers, especially single

grandmother caregivers, and the detrimental effects of poverty on mental

health, there is a need to reformulate economic policies that place grandparents

at a disadvantage. Grandparent caregivers often receive inconsistent and in-

equitable treatment based on their status as a relative. The various state plans

managing TANF funds are also contributing to this unfair treatment of grand-

parents. The inequity in financial assistance for grandparent-headed families

becomes even larger when comparing the receipt of services provided to kinship

caregivers and nonrelative foster care parents. Kinship care providers typically

do not receive the same level of compensation as nonrelative foster care parents

(Kelley et al., 2000). Policy makers can assist grandparent primary caregivers

with low incomes by easing the licensing procedures for the more generous and

less stigmatizing payments available to foster care parents or by providing al-

ternative financial support programs (e.g., subsidized guardianship) that do not

require grandparents to yield the custody of their grandchildren to the state

(Bell & Garner, 1996).

Finally, many grandparents are still in the labor force and may be required to

meet work requirements to receive welfare benefits. Many employed grandparent

caregivers are concerned with the availability and cost of child care and day care

services for their grandchildren (Gibson, 1999). The provision of school-age care

could decrease the anxiety of grandparent caregivers. Child care must be accessi-

ble and include transportation, which is a major concern of grandparent care-

givers, particularly of those living in poverty (Burton, 1992; Gibson, 1999).

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

To build our evidence base, two types of research studies are needed. First, repli-

cation studies of existing programs are needed to more rigorously evaluate their

effectiveness across different samples of grandparent caregivers. Second, there is

418 E

VIDENCE

-B

ASED

AMILY AND

OMMUNITY

RACTICE

a need to compare different interventions to determine which is most effective in

assisting grandparent caregivers.

Theoretically grounded longitudinal research on grandparent caregivers, par-

ticularly regarding the impact of policy changes (e.g., welfare reform) on those

living in poverty, is greatly needed. Researchers can take advantage of the natu-

ral variation among states in economic support programs for grandparent care-

givers to design quasi-experimental studies to examine the impact of different

levels of financial assistance on grandparent caregivers and their families. In de-

signing studies that evaluate the impact of welfare reform on grandparent-

headed families, specific time points for comparison need to be carefully selected

because some states might have administered a pilot program or a waiver project

before the official implementation of welfare reform. To ensure that changes in

policy occur as intended, an evaluation needs to be accompanied with ongoing

monitoringoftheimplementationofnewwelfarepoliciesorprogramsforkin-

ship caregivers.

Another important question that should be considered in assessing policy

change impact is about the appropriate time lags across which the effects occur.

When this is not known, or when data collection intervals are mismatched to

the actual causal time lags, the interpretation of welfare reform effects on

grandparent-headed families could be equivocal or misleading. Unfortunately,

there exists no rule of thumb to determine a proper time interval between

data collection points to examine change (Rogosa, 1979). Whether a 1-year inter-

val is too short or too long depends on the nature of the policy change under

investigation. Researchers can make good decisions about the timing of obser-

vations only if they have a sound theory guiding the relevant processes (Baltes

& Nesselroade, 1979).

To advance our knowledge about factors contributing to the well-being of

grandparent caregivers and their grandchildren, longitudinal research is needed

to examine the bidirectional nature of effects between grandparents and grand-

children. To date, most of the research has looked at how the effects of grandchil-

dren (i.e., behavior problems) affect the well-being of grandparents. It is equally

important to investigate how the levels of grandparenting stress influence parent-

ing behaviors and, ultimately, the well-being of grandchildren. The increased

psychological distress observed in grandparent caregivers is a major concern be-

cause increased parenting distress is linked to dysfunctional parent-child inter-

actions and poor child outcomes (Kelley et al., 2000). Longitudinal studies would

allow us to begin to sort out the nature of bidirectional influences between

grandparent caregivers and their grandchildren.

We have a great deal to learn about the influence of sex and ethnicity in

shaping the grandparent care-giving experience. Although grandmothers are

disproportionately represented among grandparent caregivers (Bryson & Casper,

1999), it should be acknowledged that there are also grandfathers who assume

primary care-giving responsibilities for their grandchildren. Research is needed

on whether caregiving takes a differential toll on the well-being of grandmother

and grandfather caregivers of grandchildren. Similarly, only a few studies have

examined variation in the grandparent care-giving experience across different

ethnic groups. Research on the role of culture in shaping the grandparent care-

giving experience is necessary to guide the development of culturally sensitive

psychosocial interventions.

Parenting Grandchildren 419

Finally, research is needed on the benefits associated with grandparent care-

giving (Jendrek, 1993, 2003). Following trends in the broader care-giving literature

(see Kramer, 1997), research on grandparent caregiving has focused more on the

burdens of care; yet it is important to examine both positive and negative out-

comes that are distinguishable from one another to gain a more comprehensive un-

derstanding of the psychological well-being of grandparent caregivers (Pruchno &

McKenney, 2002).

CONCLUSION

In recent years there has been growing awareness among both researchers and

the public of the increasing number of grandparents who provide care on a con-

sistent basis for their grandchildren. These older persons face numerous chal-

lenges that may negatively affect their physical, psychological, emotional, social,

and financial well-being. Research reviewed in this chapter suggests that grand-

parent caregivers and their families could benefit from community-based ser-

vices designed to respond to various needs of grandparent-headed families.

Parenting skills education, accessible and affordable child care, support groups,

case management services, and financial assistance are a few suggested services.

To advance our understanding of grandparent caregiving, we need more rigor-

ous methodological studies based on larger, more representative samples that

have sufficient variation to examine how the grandparent experience is moder-

ated by family household composition, sex, ethnicity, and the timing of the role in

the grandparent’s life course. Identifying protective factors associated with ame-

liorating the stress of grandparent caregiving is essential to develop programs

and social policies that strengthen the capacity of grandparents to care for their

grandchildren without placing an undue burden on grandparents and in a way

that maximizes the well-being of our children.

REFERENCES

American Association of Retired Persons. (1998). Welfare reform and grandparents. Re-

trieved January 22, 2000, from http://www.aarp.org/getans/grandparents.html.

Bachman, H. J., & Chase-Landsdale, P. L. (2005). Custodial grandmothers’ physical, men-

tal, and economic well-being: Comparisons of primary caregivers from low-income

neighborhoods. Family Relations, 54, 475–487.

Baltes, P. B., & Nesselroade, J. R. (1979). History and rationale of longitudinal research. In

J. R. Nesselroade & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), Longitudinal research in the study of behavior and

development (pp. 1–39). New York: Academic Press.

Barnhill, S. (1996). Three generations at risk: Imprisoned women, their children, and

grandmother caregivers. Generations, 21, 39–40.

Bell, W., & Garner, J. (1996). Kincare. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 25(1/2), 11–20.

Boots, S. W., & Geen, R. (1999). Family care or foster care? How state policies affect kinship

caregivers (Series A, No. A-34). Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

Bowers, B. F., & Myers, B. J. (1999). Grandmothers providing care for grandchildren: Con-

sequences of various levels of caregiving. Family Relations, 48, 303–311.

Bratton, S., Ray, D., & Moffit, K. (1998). Filial/family play therapy: An intervention

for custodial grandparents and their grandchildren. Educational Gerontology, 24,

391–406.

420 E

VIDENCE

-B

ASED

AMILY AND

OMMUNITY

RACTICE

Bryson, K. R. (2001). New Census Bureau data on grandparents raising grandchildren. Unpub-

lished manuscript.

Bryson, K. R., & Casper, L. (1999). Coresident grandparents and grandchildren (Current Pop-

ulation Reports, P23-198). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Retrieved May

9, 2006, from http://www.census.gov/prod/99pubs/p23–198.pdf.

Burnette, D. (1997). Grandmother caregivers in inner-city Latino families: A descriptive

profile and informal social supports. Journal of Multicultural Social Work, 5, 121–137.

Burnette, D. (1998). Grandparents rearing grandchildren: A school-based small group in-

tervention. Research in Social Work Practice, 8, 10–27.

Burnette, D. (1999a). Physical and emotional well-being of custodial grandparents in

Latino families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 305–318.

Burnette, D. (1999b). Social relationships of Latino grandparent caregivers: A role theory

perspective. Gerontologist, 39, 49–59.

Burnette, D. (2000). Latino grandparents rearing grandchildren with special needs: Ef-

fects on depressive symptomatology. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 33(3), 1–16.

Burton, L. M. (1992). Black grandparents rearing children of drug-addicted parents:

Stressors, outcomes, and social service needs. Gerontologist, 32, 744–751.

Burton, L. M., & deVries, C. (1992). Challenges and rewards: African American grandpar-

ents as surrogate parents. Generations, 17(3), 51–54.

Burton, L. M., & Dilworth-Anderson, P. (1991). The intergenerational family roles of aged

Black Americans. Marriage and Family Review, 16, 311–330.

Caputo, R. K. (2001). Grandparents and coresident grandchildren in a youth cohort. Jour-

nal of Family Issues, 22, 541–556.

Casper, L. M., & Bryson, K. R. (1998). Co-resident grandparents and their grandchildren: Grand-

parent maintained families (Working Paper No. 26). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the

Census, Population Division. Retrieved May 10, 2006, from http://www.census.gov

/population/www/documentation/twps0026/twps0026.html.

Chenoweth, L. (2000). Grandparent education. In B. Hayslip Jr. & R. Goldberg-Glen

(Eds.), Grandparents raising grandchildren: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives

(pp. 307–326). New York: Springer.

Cherlin, A. J., & Furstenberg, F. F., Jr. (1986). The new American grandparent: A place in the

family, a life apart. New York: Basic Books.

Cox, A. G., & Pebley, A. R. (1999). Grandparent care and welfare: Assessing the impact of public

policy on split and three generation families (Labor and Population Program, Working

Paper Series 99-08). Washington, DC: RAND.

Cox, C. B., Brooks, L. R., & Valcarcel, C. (2000). Culture and caregiving: A study of Latino

grandparents. In C. B. Cox (Ed.), To grandmother’s house we go and stay: Perspectives on

custodial grandparents (pp. 218–232). New York: Springer.

Creighton, L. (1991, December 16). Silent saviors. U.S. News and World Report, 81–89.

Dannison, L. L., & Smith, A. B. (2003). Custodial grandparents community support pro-

gram: Lessons learned. Children and Schools, 25, 87–95.

Dilworth-Anderson, P., Burton, L., & Johnson, N. (1993). Reframing theories for under-

standing race, ethnicity, and families. In P. G. Boss, W. J. Doherty, R. LaRossa, W. R.

Schumm, & S. K. Steinmetz (Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methods: A contextual

approach (pp. 627–646). New York: Plenum Press.

Dowdell, E. (1995). Caregiver burden: Grandmothers raising their high risk grandchil-

dren. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing Mental Health Services, 33(3), 27–30.

Dressel, P. L., & Barnhill, S. K. (1994). Reframing gerontological thought and practices:

The case of grandmothers with daughters in prison. Gerontologist, 34, 685–691.

Parenting Grandchildren 421

Dubowitz, H., & Feigelman, S. (1993). A profile of kinship care. Child Welfare, 72, 153–169.

Emick, M. A., & Hayslip, B. (1999). Custodial grandparenting: Stresses, coping skills, and

relationships with grandchildren. International Journal of Aging and Human Develop-

ment, 48, 35–61.

Farrell, M., Fishman, M., Laud, S., & Allen, V. (2000). Understanding the AFDC/TANF

child-only caseload: Policies, composition, and characteristics in three states (The Lewin

Group). Retrieved May 10, 2006, from http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/child-only-caseload00

/index.htm.

Fields, J., & Casper, L. (2001). America’s families and living arrangements: 2000 (U.S. Census

Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P20-537). Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-

ment Printing Office.

Flint, M. M., & Perez-Porter, M. (1997). Grandparent caregivers: Legal and economic is-

sues. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 28(1/2), 63–76.

Fuller-Thomson, E., Minkler, M., & Driver, D. (1997). A profile of grandparents raising

grandchildren in the United States. Gerontologist, 37, 406–411.

Giarrusso, R., Silverstein, M., & Feng, D. (2000). Psychological costs and benefits of raising

grandchildren: Evidence from a national survey of grandparents. In C. B. Cox (Ed.), To

grandmother’s house we go and stay: Perspectives on custodial grandparents (pp. 71–90). New

York: Springer.

Gibson, P. A. (1999). African American grandmothers: New mothers again. Affilia, 14,

329–343.

Goldberg-Glen, R. S., & Sands, R. G. (2000). Primary and secondary caregiving grandpar-

ents: How different are they? In B. Hayslip Jr. & R. Goldberg-Glen (Eds.), Grandparents

raising grandchildren: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives (pp. 161–180). New

York: Springer.

Goodman, C., & Silverstein, M. (2002). Grandmothers raising grandchildren: Family

structure and well-being in culturally diverse families. Gerontologist, 42, 676–689.

Grant, R., Gordon, S., & Cohen, S. (1997). An innovative school-based intergenerational

model to serve grandparent caregivers. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 28(1/2),

47–61.

Harden, A. W., Clark, R., & Maguire, K. (1997). Formal and informal kinship care (Report for

the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Task Order HHS-

100-95-0021). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Re-

trieved May 10, 2006, from http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/cyp/xskincar.htm.

Harrison, K. A., Richman, G. S., & Vittimberga, G. L. (2000). Parental stress in grandpar-

ents versus parents raising children with behavior problems. Journal of Family Issues,

21, 262–270.

Hayslip, B., Jr. (2003). The impact of a psychosocial intervention on parental efficacy,

grandchild relationship quality, and well-being among grandparents raising grand-

children. In B. Hayslip & J. H. Patrick (Eds.), Working with custodial grandparents

(pp. 163–176). Springer: New York.

Hayslip, B., Jr., Emick, M. A., Henderson, C. E., & Elias, K. (2002). Temporal variations in

the experience of custodial grandparenting: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal

of Applied Gerontology, 21, 139–156.

Hayslip, B., Jr., & Patrick, J. H. (Eds.). (2003). Working with custodial grandparents. Springer:

New York.

Hayslip, B., Jr., Shore, R., Henderson, C., & Lambert, P. (1998). Custodial grandparenting

and the impact of grandchildren with problems on role satisfaction and role meaning.

Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 53, S164–S173.

422 E

VIDENCE

-B

ASED

AMILY AND

OMMUNITY

RACTICE

Hernandez, D. J., & Meyer, D. E. (1993). America’s children: Resources from family, govern-

ment, and the economy. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Jackson, J. S., & Antonucci, T. C. (1992). Social support processes in health and effective

functioning of the elderly. In M. L. Wykle, E. Kahana, & J. Kowal (Eds.), Stress and

health among the elderly (pp. 72–95). New York: Springer.

Janicki, M. P., McCallion, P., Grant-Griffin, L., & Kolomer, S. R. (2000). Grandparent care-

giver I: Characteristics of the grandparents and the children with disabilities for

whom they care. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 33(3), 35–55.

Jendrek, M. P. (1993). Grandparents who parent their grandchildren: Effects on lifestyle.

Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 609–621.

Jendrek, M. P. (1994). Policy concerns of White grandparents who provide regular care to

their grandchildren. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 23(1/2), 175–200.

Jendrek, M. P. (2003). Grandparents: Family supporters, custodial caregivers, and dolls.

Gerontologist, 43, 771–773.

Jenkins, C. L. (1997). Women, work, and caregiving: How do these roles affect women’s

well-being? Journal of Women and Aging, 9(3), 27–45.

Jimenez, J. (2002). The history of grandmothers in the African-American community. So-

cial Service Review, 76, 523–551.

Jones, L., & Kennedy, J. (1996). Grandparents United: Intergenerational developmental

education. Child Welfare, 75, 636–650.

Joslin, D. (2000). Emotional well-being among grandparents raising children affected and

orphaned by HIV disease. In B. Hayslip Jr. & R. Goldberg-Glen (Eds.), Grandparents

raising grandchildren: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives (pp. 87–105). New

York: Springer.

Joslin, D., & Brouard, A. (1995). The prevalence of grandmothers as primary caregivers in

a poor pediatric population. Journal of Community Health, 20, 383–401.

Joslin, D., & Harrison, R. (1998). “The hidden patient”: Older relatives raising children or-

phaned by AIDS. Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association, 53(2), 65–71.

Karp, N. (1996). Legal problems of grandparents and other kinship caregivers. Genera-

tions, 21, 57–60.

Kelley, S. J. (1993). Caregiver stress in grandparents raising grandchildren. IMAGE: Jour-

nal of Nursing Scholarship, 25, 331–337.

Kelley, S. J., Whitley, D., Sipe, T. A., & Yorker, B. C. (2000). Psychological distress in

grandmother kinship care providers: The role of resources, social support, and physi-

cal health. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 311–321.

Kolomer, S. R., McCallion, P., & Janicki, M. P. (2002). African-American grandmother car-

ers of children with disabilities: Predictors of depressive symptoms. Journal of Geronto-

logical Social Work, 37(3/4), 45–62.

Kolomer, S. R., McCallion, P., & Overeynder, J. (2003). Why support groups help: Successful

interventions for grandparent caregivers of children with developmental disabilities. In

B. Hayslip & J. H. Patrick (Eds.), Working with custodial grandparents (pp. 111–125). New

York: Springer.

Kornhaber, A. (1985). Grandparenthood and the “New Social Contract.” In V. L. Bengtson

& J. F. Robertson (Eds.), Grandparenthood (pp. 159–172). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Kramer, B. J. (1997). Gain in the caregiving experience: Where are we? What next? Geron-

tologist, 37, 218–232.

Kramer, B. J., & Lambert, J. D. (1999). Caregiving as a life course transition among older

husbands: A prospective study. Gerontologist, 39, 658–667.

Parenting Grandchildren 423

Landry-Meyer, L. (1999). Research into action: Recommended intervention strategies for

grandparent caregivers. Family Relations, 48, 381–389.

Landry-Meyer, L., Gerard, J. M., & Guzell, J. R. (2005). Caregiver stress among grandpar-

ents raising grandchildren: The functional role of social support. Marriage and Family

Review, 37(1/2), 171–190.

Leos-Urbel, J., Bess, R., & Geen, R. (2000). State policies for assessing and supporting kinship

foster parents. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

Li, L. W., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (1997). Social support and depressive symp-

toms: Differential patterns in wife and daughter caregivers. Journal of Gerontology: So-

cial Sciences, 52B, S200–S211.

Lugaila, T. (1998, March). Marital status and living arrangements (Update: Current Popula-

tion Reports, P20-514). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

Marks, N. F. (1998). Does it hurt to care? Caregiving, work-family conflict, and midlife

well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 951–966.

McCallion, P., Janicki, M. P., Grant-Griffin, L., & Kolomer, S. R. (2000). Grandparent care-

givers II: Service needs and service provision issues. Journal of Gerontological Social

Work, 33, 57–84.

McCallion, P., Janicki, M. P., & Kolomer, S. R. (2004). Controlled evaluation of support

groups for grandparent caregivers of children with developmental disabilities and de-

lays. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 109, 352–361.

Mills, T. L., Gomez-Smith, Z., & De Leon, J. M. (2005). Skipped-generation families:

Sources of psychological distress among grandmothers of grandchildren who live in

homes where neither parent is present. Marriage and Family Review, 37(1/2), 191–212.

Minkler, M., Berrick, J. D., & Needell, B. (1999). The impact of welfare reform on Califor-

nia grandparents raising grandchildren: Reflections from the field. Journal of Aging

and Social Policy, 10, 45–63.

Minkler, M., Fuller-Thomson, E., Miller, D., & Driver, D. (1997). Depression in grandpar-

ents raising grandchildren: Results of a national longitudinal study. Archives of Family

Medicine, 6, 445–452.

Minkler, M., & Roe, K. M. (1993). Grandmothers as caregivers: Raising children of the crack co-

caine epidemic. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Minkler, M., Roe, K. M., & Price, M. (1992). The physical and emotional health of grand-

mothers raising grandchildren in the crack cocaine epidemic. Gerontologist, 32,

752–761.

Moen, P., Robinson, J., & Fields, V. (1994). Women’s work and caregiving roles: A life

course approach. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 49(4), S176–S186.

Morrow-Kondos, D., Weber, J. A., Cooper, K., & Hesser, J. L. (1997). Becoming parents

again: Grandparents raising grandchildren. Journal of Gerontological Social Work,

28(1/2), 35–46.

Mullen, F. (1996). Public benefits: Grandparents, grandchildren, and welfare reform.

Generation, 21, 61–64.

Mullen, F. (2000). Grandparents and welfare reform. In C. B. Cox (Ed.), To grandmother’s

house we go and stay: Perspectives on custodial grandparents (pp. 113–131). New York:

Springer.

Mullen, F., & Einhorn, M. (2000). The effect of state TANF choices on grandparent-headed house-

holds. Washington, DC: American Association of Retired Persons, Public Policy Institute.

Retrieved May 10, 2006, from http://www.aarp.org/research/family/grandparenting

/aresearch-import-548-2000-18.html.

424 E

VIDENCE

-B

ASED

AMILY AND

OMMUNITY

RACTICE

Musil, C. M. (2000). Health of grandmothers as caregivers: A 10-month follow-up. Journal

of Women and Aging, 12, 129–145.

Musil, C. M., & Ahmad, M. (2002). Health of grandmothers: A comparison by caregiver

status. Journal of Aging and Health, 12, 96–121.

Neal, M. B., Chapman, N. J., Ingersoll-Dayton, B., & Emlen, A. C. (1993). Balancing work

and caregiving for children, adults, and elders. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Park, H. (2004). Grandmothers as primary caregivers: Poverty, care demands, social par-

ticipation, and psychological distress. Dissertation Abstracts International (UMI No.

3127977).

Pinson-Millburn, N. M., Fabian, E. S., Schlossberg, N. K., & Pyle, M. (1996). Grandparents

raising grandchildren. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74, 548–554.

Pruchno, R. (1999). Raising grandchildren: The experience of Black and White grand-

mothers. Gerontologist, 39, 209–221.

Pruchno, R., & Johnson, K. (1996). Research on grandparenting: Review of current studies

and future needs. Generations, 20(1), 65–71.

Pruchno, R., & McKenney, D. (2000). Living with grandchildren: The effects of custodial

and coresident households on the mental health of grandmothers. Journal of Mental

Health and Aging, 6, 269–289.

Pruchno, R., & McKenney, D. (2002). Psychological well-being of Black and White grand-

mothers raising grandchildren: Examination of a two factor model. Journal of Gerontol-

ogy: Psychological Sciences, 57(5), 444–452.

Pruchno, R. A., Patrick, J. H., & Burant, C. J. (1997). African American and White mothers

of adults with chronic disabilities: Caregiving burden and satisfaction. Family Rela-

tions, 46, 335–346.

Robertson, J. F. (1995). Grandparents in an era of rapid change. In R. Blessed & V. Bedford

(Eds.), Handbook of aging and the family (pp. 243–260). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Rodgers, A. Y., & Jones, R. L. (1999). Grandmothers who are caregivers: An overlooked

population. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 16, 455–466.

Rodgers-Farmer, A. Y. (1999). Parenting stress, depression, and parenting in grandmoth-

ers raising their grandchildren. Children and Youth Services Review, 21, 377–388.

Roe, K. M., Minkler, M., Saunders, F. F., & Thomson, G. E. (1996). Health of grandmothers

raising children of the crack cocaine epidemic. Medical Care, 34, 1072–1084.

Rogers, A., & Henkin, N. (2000). School-based interventions for children in kinship care.

In B. Hayslip Jr. & R. Goldberg-Glen (Eds.), Grandparents raising grandchildren: Theoreti-

cal, empirical, and clinical perspectives (pp. 221–238). New York: Springer.

Rogosa, D. (1979). Causal models in longitudinal research: Rationale, formulation, and in-

terpretation. In J. R. Nesselroade & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), Longitudinal research in the study

of behavior and development (pp. 263–302). New York: Academic Press.

Sands, R. G., & Goldberg-Glen, R. S. (1998). The impact of employment and serious illness

on grandmothers who are raising their grandchildren. Journal of Women and Aging,

10(3), 41–58.

Scarcella, C. A., Ehrle, J., & Geen, R. (2003). Identifying and addressing the needs of children

in grandparent care (Series B, No. B-55). Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

Schwartz, C., & Gidron, R. (2002). Parents of mentally ill adult children living at home:

Rewards of caregiving. Health and Social Work, 27, 145–154.

Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (1999). The caregiving context: The intersection of so-

cial and individual influences in the experience of family caregiving. In C. D. Ryff &

V. W. Marshall (Eds.), The self and society in aging processes (pp. 362–397). New York:

Springer.

Parenting Grandchildren 425

Shore, R. J., & Hayslip, B., Jr. (1994). Custodial grandparenting: Implication for children’s

development. In A. E. Gottfried & A. W. Gottfried (Eds.), Redefining families: Implica-

tions for children’s development (pp. 171–218). New York: Plenum Press.

Solomon, J. C., & Marx, J. (1999). Who cares? Grandparent/grandchild households. Jour-

nal of Women and Aging, 11, 3–25.

Strawbridge, W. J., Wallhagen, M. I., Shema, S. J., & Kaplan, G. A. (1997). New burdens or

more of the same? Comparing grandparent, spouse, and adult-child caregivers. Geron-

tologist, 37, 505–510.

Szinovacz, M. E. (1998). Grandparents today: A demographic profile. Gerontologist, 38,

37–52.

Szinovacz, M. E., DeViney, S., & Atkinson, M. P. (1999). Effects of surrogate parenting on

grandparents’ well-being. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 54B, S376–S388.

Troll, L. E. (1983). Grandparents: The family watchdogs. In T. H. Brubaker (Ed.), Family

relationships in later life (pp. 63–74). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Uhlenberg, P., & Kirby, J. B. (1998). Grandparenthood over time: Historical and demo-

graphic trends. In M. E. Szinovacz (Ed.), Handbook on grandparenthood (pp. 23–39).

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1994). The diverse living arrangements of children: Summer 1991

(Current Population Reports, Household Economic Studies, P70-38). Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved May 10, 2006, from http://www.census

.gov/population/socdemo/child/p70-38.pdf.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2001a). Living arrangements of children: 2001 (Current Popula-

tion Reports, Household Economic Studies, P70-104). Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-

ment Printing Office.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2001b). Table C2: Household relationship and Living arrange-

ments of children under 18 years. Retrieved May 10, 2006, from http://www.census.gov

/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/p20-537_00.html.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2004). Table CH-7: Grandchildren living in the home of their grand-

parents: 1970 to present. Retrieved May 10, 2006, from www.census.gov/population

/socdemo/hh-fam/tabCH-7.pdf.

U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means. (2000). 2000 green book:

Background material and data on programs within the jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways

and Means (Ways and Means Committee Print 106–114). Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-

ment Printing Office.

Utz, R. L., Carr, D., Nesse, R., & Wortman, C. B. (2002). The effect of widowhood on older

adults’ social participation: An evaluation of activity, disengagement, and continuity

theories. Gerontologist, 42, 522–533.

Weber, J. A., & Waldrop, D. P. (2000). Grandparents raising grandchildren: Families in

transition. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 33(2), 27–46.

Whitley, D. M., White, K. R., Kelley, S. J., & Yourke, B. (1999). Strengths-based case man-

agement: The application to grandparents raising grandchildren. Families in Society,

80, 110–119.

Wood, V., & Robertson, J. (1976). The significance of grandparenthood. In J. Gubrium

(Ed.), Time, roles, and self in old age (pp. 278–304). New York: Human Science Press.

Woodworth, R. S. (1996). You’re not alone ...you’re one in a million. Child Welfare, 75,

619–635.