Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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shape adolescent academic competence and achievement (Glasgow, Dornbusch,

Troyer, Steinberg, & Ritter, 1997). Specifically, authoritative parenting—demo-

cratic but with clear firm rules, demanding yet supportive, open communication,

and encouragement of independence—has a positive effect on academic achieve-

ment across both gender and socioeconomic status. Adolescents with authorita-

tive parents are better able to balance individual and group needs, report higher

self-perceptions of ability, and are more self-reliant than other youths (Steinberg,

Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992).

Jodl, Michael, Malanchuk, Eccles, and Sameroff (2001) criticized past literature

studying the role of parents on children’s occupational aspirations because of the

heavy focus on structural attainment features such as socioeconomic status or

parental occupations. They argued that process variables—parents’ role modeling,

attitudes, behavior, and related socialization practices—were equally important

in understanding the role parents play in their children’s occupational lives. Ex-

amining two specific domains, academics and sports, parents’ values predicted

their children’s occupational aspirations both directly and indirectly. In the aca-

demic domain, a direct path existed between parents’ beliefs and practices and

their children’s aspirations. Conversely, an indirect path existed for the sports

domain where fathers’ behavior mediated the relationship. The researchers con-

cluded that family plays a primary role in, and establishes a critical context for,

career development.

Barber and Eccles (1992) looked at occupational aspirations in light of the ef-

fects of divorce and single parenting. They proposed a conceptual model to ex-

plain the long-term influences of divorce and single parenting on both family

processes and child identity formation. The model included three factors—mater-

nal employment (role modeling, time spent with children, work attitudes), family

processes (distribution of family responsibilities), and parental expectations—

assumed to mediate or be linked to the socialization of occupational aspirations.

These three factors heavily influence adolescents’ values, self-concept, and

achievement, which in turn are predicted to influence educational and occupa-

tional aspirations. Countering long-held beliefs that divorce or single parenting is

often negative, Barber and Eccles suggested that there might be advantages for

children living with a single parent:

Children in single-parent, female-headed families may develop a greater sense of

personal responsibility and self-esteem, and girls and boys may develop less gender-

role stereotyped occupational aspirations...which could lead to their increased

success in the labor market. (p. 122)

MPORTANT

OLE OF

DUCATIONAL

SPIRATIONS AND

TTAINMENT

As described earlier, a number of authors (e.g., Alexander & Eckland, 1975;

Haller & Virkler, 1993; Marjoribanks, 2002; Mau & Bikos, 2000; Mau et al., 1995;

Rojewski, 1999; Rottinghaus et al., 2002; Schoon & Parsons, 2002) have concluded

that educational aspirations—the impressions formed about academic abilities

and highest level of education an individual would like to attain (Furlong & Cart-

mel, 1995)—and educational attainment are the bedrock of career development

and choice. In a thorough review of the literature on the academic achievement-

career development link, Arbona (2000) identified a number of predictors of

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Occupational Aspirations: Constructs, Meanings, and Application 147

school success—thus, indirectly on educational and occupational aspirations—

including socioeconomic status, children’s and parents’ intelligence, quality of

education, parental and peer influences, and motivational factors. Educational

aspirations are important because they guide individuals in what they learn in

school, how they prepare for adult life, and what they eventually accomplish

(Walberg, 1989).

The role of educational aspirations in career attainment is often explained in

this manner. Through a complex set of processes and interactions, high educa-

tional (and to a lesser degree, occupational) aspirations enhance the opportuni-

ties an individual receives to acquire advanced education, which, in turn, allows

for greater occupational possibilities in adulthood. In contrast, lowered educa-

tional aspirations may lead adolescents to preclude involvement in certain types

of academic activities and, thus, limit their future occupationally-related oppor-

tunities and experiences. For example, adolescents who do not complete certain

academic prerequisites in middle school because of lowered aspirations are often

unable to enroll in advanced mathematics and science courses in high school. A

lack of academic prerequisites, then, all but eliminates the possibility of attaining

a college degree, which, in turn, results in diminished opportunities for attaining

high-prestige occupations (Arbona, 2000, Chapter 22, this volume; Betz, 1993;

Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994; Lent et al., 1994). Rosenbaum (1979) described this pro-

cess in terms of a tournament where those ousted from the tournament (in this

case, academics) at an early age do not have opportunities to compete for future

opportunities.

Indeed, given its cumulative effects, an early lack of academic achievement is

progressively more difficult to counteract as children grow (Arbona, 2000). Mau

and Bikos (2000) indicated that the single best predictor of occupational aspira-

tions was academic performance. High school academic program (college prepa-

ration versus technical preparation), school type, and academic proficiency were

other predictors of both educational and occupational aspirations in their study.

Academic achievement has also been linked to postsecondary aspirations in a

number of other studies (e.g., Bogie, 1976; Hellenga et al., 2002; Lent, O’Brien, &

Fassinger, 1998).

Several of my own investigations highlight the prominent role of educational as-

pirations and academic achievement on the development of occupational aspira-

tions, as well as on postsecondary attainment. For example, Yang and I (Rojewski

& Yang, 1997) reported that achievement had a modest positive influence on oc-

cupational aspirations that was greatest in Grade 8 and then decreased until high

school graduation. Higher academic achievement was positively correlated with

higher occupational and educational aspirations. We found it interesting that ed-

ucational, not occupational, aspirations had consistently higher factor loadings

on the occupational aspirations construct we designed. This means that early ado-

lescents’ educational aspirations were a more reliable measure for occupational

aspirations than occupational aspirations themselves.

Rojewski and Kim (2003) found further evidence for the importance of educa-

tional aspirations. We studied adolescents whose status two years after high

school graduation was known (e.g., in college, employed full time) and found that

educational aspirations in Grade 8 were more accurate predictors of what young

adults were doing two years after the completion of high school than were occu-

pational aspirations. We concluded, “Our analysis examined the developmental

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nature of aspirations in early adolescence through structural equation modeling

finding that (1) occupational aspirations are influenced more by academic

achievement and expected postsecondary educational attainment than antici-

pated occupational attainment and (2) that aspirations, identified by prestige

level, are relatively stable from Grades 8 to 10” (Rojewski & Kim, 2003, p. 106).

The weight of evidence defining the connection between academic achievement-

educational aspirations-occupational aspirations was enough for Ma and Wang

(2001) to recommend:

[T]he focus of educators and administrators should be on improving education out-

comes, and they should use factors of educational productivity to promote student

career aspiration. In other words, resources for a direct campaign to promote stu-

dent career aspiration may well be spent in improving the chance of student aca-

demic success. (p. 452)

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

An important issue about occupational aspirations is that they tend to be rela-

tively established by the eighth grade and remain fairly stable throughout adoles-

cence. A comprehensive, longitudinal, and integrated focus on education, career

development, and the direct connection between the two is needed so that sec-

ondary (and postsecondary) educational options are not eliminated prematurely

(Rosenbaum, 1979) and appropriate career-related choices can be identified,

planned for, and attained. Given the considerable influence of social demo-

graphic variables such as gender, race or ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on

aspirations and the early emergence of aspirations, it appears that the typical

practice of introducing time-limited career development interventions for eighth-

and ninth-grade students (e.g., conducting a career day or offering an eight-week

career awareness unit) may simply be a matter of too little, too late. Specific in-

terventions should begin in elementary school years and be sustained through

secondary and postsecondary education. While an emphasis on career education

has become an increasingly important part of the elementary and middle school

years (Murrow-Taylor, Foltz, Ellis, & Culbertson, 1999), a great deal more needs

to be done. Wahl and Blackhurst (2000) indicated that efforts must be started

early when impressions are being formed so that realistic information about the

world of work can be provided and career stereotypes combated. Rashmi et al.

(2002) posited that to be effective, interventions should focus on involving fami-

lies and supporting positive education values at an early age. Several chapters in

this volume also provide a wealth of suggestions about potentially useful inter-

ventions, including Turner and Lapan (Chapter 17), Arbona (Chapter 22), Fabian

and Liesener (Chapter 23), Juntunen (Chapter 24), and Achter and Lubinski

(Chapter 25).

When considering findings about occupational aspirations, it is important to

remember that lower aspirations are not by themselves negative. In fact, the

labor market does not produce unlimited numbers of high-prestige occupations.

Lowered aspirations may reflect an accurate and realistic assessment of an indi-

vidual’s abilities, interests, and skills (G. D. Gottfredson & Holland, 1975; L. S.

Gottfredson & Becker, 1981). However, the limiting effect that lowered aspira-

tions have on identifying future goals and establishing initial plans should be

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Occupational Aspirations: Constructs, Meanings, and Application 149

addressed by career educators at all levels. Those involved in career guidance

and counseling efforts should be aware of the factors that positively and nega-

tively influence aspirations when developing career development programs

(Wahl & Blackhurst, 2000).

Aspirations are not always necessarily indicators of eventual attainment.

However, they have considerable psychological meaning and predictive value in

iden

tifying individuals’ future educational and career options (Holland & Gott-

fredson, 1975). Further, knowledge about the construct provides insight into how

personal and social pressures influence career development, the process of career

compromise and decision making, and ways that early academic experiences and

performance might shape our adult lives. While a great deal is known about oc-

cupational aspirations and connections to both educational and occupational at-

tainment, additional investigation is warranted. For example, future research

might examine the dimensionality of aspirations (e.g., Johnson, 1995), clarify the

longitudinal perspective and role of aspirations in occupational attainment, or re-

fine existing models. Study of the potential of early and sustained school-based

career interventions for enhancing the career development of children and ado-

lescents is also needed.

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CHAPTER 7

Job Search Success: A Review and

Integration of the Predictors,

Behaviors, and Outcomes

Alan M. Saks

OB SEARCH IS

a topic of considerable importance to researchers who are inter-

ested in the predictors and consequences of job seekers’ job search activities

and to practitioners who assist job seekers in finding employment. Many

stake

holders have a vested interest in the job search process, including individu-

als,

educational institutions, career counselors, organizations, and society at large.

Thus, job search is of relevance to a wide range of individuals, including those

who have suffered involuntary job loss, individuals who are entering the work-

force for the first time, and individuals who want to change their jobs, organiza-

tions, or even careers. Given that workers in the United States are expected to

engage in more than a dozen job changes over the course of their work lives, “job

search has become an integral aspect of American worklife” (Kanfer, Wanberg, &

Kantrowitz, 2001, p. 837).

It is, therefore, of considerable importance to understand how people search

for employment, how job search activities influence job search success, and how

to assist job seekers in their job search efforts. Fortunately, there has been an in-

creasing amount of research in the past 10 years on job search, including a meta-

analysis on the antecedents and consequences of job search behavior (Kanfer

et al., 2001).

Although job search research has advanced considerably since Schwab, Rynes,

and Aldag (1987) reviewed the literature more than 15 years ago, there remains a

need to integrate variables that have often been studied in isolation and in differ-

ent streams of job search research. For example, one stream of research focuses on

the predictors and outcomes of job search (e.g., Saks & Ashforth, 1999; Wanberg,

Hough, & Song, 2002; Wanberg, Kanfer, & Banas, 2000; Wanberg, Kanfer, & Ro-

tundo, 1999) while a separate stream focuses on interventions to help unem-

ployed job seekers find employment (e.g., Caplan, Vinokur, Price, & van Ryn,

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