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1989; Vinokur, Schul, Vuori, & Price, 2000). Clearly, these are two areas that

should inform each other. That is, the findings from research on the predictors

and outcomes of job search should be used as a foundation for the development of

job search interventions.

A second area where integration is lacking exists within the literature on job

search predictors and outcomes. The problem stems from studies that focus on

particular job search behaviors. For example, some studies focus exclusively on the

sources that job seekers use to find employment (e.g., Huffman & Torres, 2001; Le-

icht & Marx, 1997), while others focus on job search intensity (e.g., Wanberg et al.,

1999), networking intensity (Wanberg et al., 2000), and assertive job-seeking be-

haviors (Schmit, Amel, & Ryan, 1993). Thus, there is a need to integrate these var-

ious forms of job search behavior into a unified and integrated framework.

Another problem is the tendency for job search studies to focus on particular

outcomes. For example, some studies are mostly concerned with whether a job

seeker finds employment (e.g., Wanberg, Watt, & Rumsey, 1996), the earnings ob-

tained from employment (Huffman & Torres, 2001), or the quality of employment

obtained (Saks & Ashforth, 2002). Thus, job search studies vary in terms of the

criteria used to assess job search effectiveness (Brasher & Chen, 1999).

The main objective of this chapter is to integrate the findings from job search

research to develop a coherent and integrative model that includes the different

predictors of job search, the various forms of job search behavior, and the differ-

ent outcomes or criteria of job search success. A second objective is to develop an

intervention framework, based on the job search model, to be used for practice to

guide those who assist job seekers in finding employment. The basic notion be-

hind the job search intervention framework is that attempts to assist job seekers

should be tailored to the needs and goals of a job seeker in terms of specific job

search behaviors and outcomes.

The chapter first defines job search as a form of goal-directed behavior. Next, the

job search process is described, followed by a review of job search models. This is

followed by a review of each of the main variables in models of job search: job

search behaviors, predictors of job search, and outcomes of job search. Based on the

review, an integrative self-regulatory model of job search predictors, behaviors,

and outcomes is presented, followed by a job search intervention framework.

JOB SEARCH AS GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOR

Job search is a process that consists of gathering information about potential job

opportunities, generating and evaluating job alternatives, and choosing a job

from the alternatives (Barber, Daly, Giannantonio, & Phillips, 1994). These activi-

ties determine the type and amount of information that job seekers obtain about

job openings as well as the number of job opportunities from which a job seeker

may choose.

Kanfer et al. (2001) conceptualized job search as a motivational self-regulatory

process that involves “a purposive, volitional pattern of action that begins with

the identification and commitment to pursuing an employment goal” (p. 838).

Employment goals activate job search behaviors that are intended to lead to the

employment goal. Thus, “individuals identify, initiate, and pursue actions for

the purpose of obtaining new employment or reemployment” (p. 849). Job search

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and the self-regulatory process ends when the employment goal has been

achieved or is abandoned. Thus, job search can be understood as a form of goal-

directed behavior.

Several studies have shown that goals are an important motivator of job search.

For example, in a study of unemployed manufacturing workers, Prussia, Fugate,

and Kinicki (2001) found that reemployment coping goals (an individual’s de-

sired end result that he or she seeks to accomplish in response to a perceived

harm/loss or threat such as reemployment in response to job loss) were positively

related to job search effort, and job search effort predicted reemployment. Saks

and Ashforth (2002) found that career planning, an indicator of career goals, was

related to perceptions of preentry person-job (P-J) and person-organization (P-O)

fit as well as postentry P-J fit and job attitudes. Wanberg et al. (2002) found that

job search clarity (the extent to which unemployed job seekers have clear job

search objectives and a clear idea of the type of work desired) was positively re-

lated to job-organization fit and lower intention to quit. Thus, goal setting during

job search appears to predict job search effort and outcomes and represents a crit-

ical factor in the job search process.

THE JOB SEARCH PROCESS

The job search process has been described as a logical sequence of activities. Ac-

cording to Soelberg (1967), job search consists of two phases—planning job search

and then job search and choice. Job search begins with an extensive search to

gather information and identify job opportunities followed by a more intensive

search that involves the acquisition of specific information about jobs and organi-

zations. Similarly, Blau (1993, 1994) distinguished preparatory from active job

search behavior. Preparatory job search behavior is an information gathering

stage in which job seekers find out about job opportunities through different

sources of information. Active job search behavior involves actually applying for

positions.

In addition to the sequential model, two other models of the job search process

have been proposed. According to the learning model, job seekers learn more effi-

cient and effective search techniques during the course of their job search. As job

seekers gain more experience, they identify those techniques and activities that

work best for them and change their behaviors accordingly (Barber et al., 1994).

The emotional response model asserts that job seekers experience high levels of stress

and frustration during the course of their job search, which can lead to avoidance,

helplessness, and withdrawal. For some seekers, especially those who experience

difficulty in finding employment, the job search process becomes so stressful that

they simply abandon their search (Barber et al., 1994).

Several studies have measured the change in job seekers’ search behavior. For

example, Barber et al. (1994) measured the job search activities of college and

vocational-technical school graduates early in the search process, at graduation,

and three months following graduation for those who remained unemployed.

They found a significant decrease from initial search to late search at graduation

in the use of formal job information sources, job search intensity, and information

related to obtaining a job. For those who remained unemployed at graduation,

they found a significant increase in the use of formal job information sources and

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intensity three months later. Barber et al. concluded that their results are most

consistent with the sequential model of job search.

Saks and Ashforth (2000) studied recent university graduates who had not

found a job just before graduation. A follow-up four months later indicated that

job seekers increased their active job search behavior, formal job source usage,

and search effort, and decreased their job search anxiety. They also found that a

change in job search behavior was related to the number of interviews and

whether a job seeker obtained employment, and the relationship between change

in job search behavior and employment was mediated by the number of job offers

that a job seeker received. An increase in job search behavior was related to more

job interviews, more job interviews related to more job offers, and more offers re-

lated to finding employment.

In summary, job search is a dynamic process that consists of a variety of job

search activities and behaviors that change during the course of an individual’s

job search. Furthermore, changes in job search behavior are associated with job

search outcomes.

JOB SEARCH MODELS

Seventeen years ago, Schwab et al. (1987) presented a model of the determinants

and consequences of job search intensity. Job search intensity was the only job

search behavior variable, and there were two determinants and one consequence.

According to the model, self-esteem and financial need predict job search inten-

sity, and job search intensity predicts employment. Employment was defined in

terms of whether employment was obtained and the quality of the employment

(e.g., wage level, satisfaction with choice, tenure with the new employer).

Since then, additional predictors, job search variables, and outcomes have been

investigated, and more complex and expanded job search models have been devel-

oped.

Most of these models include personal and situational predictors of job

search behaviors and consider employment status and the rate or speed of em-

ployment as the main outcomes of job search (e.g., see Saks & Ashforth, 1999;

Wanberg et al., 1996, 1999).

Two of the most recent models extend existing models in several ways. First,

Wanberg et al. (2002) developed a multidisciplinary model of reemployment suc-

ss that consists of seven major categories of predictors of reemployment

suc

cess: labor market demand; job seeker human capital (the ability, experience,

and personality characteristics the job seeker brings to the job); job seeker social

capital (job seeker social networks); job seeker reemployment constraints; job

seekers’ economic need to work; job seekers’ job search intensity, clarity, and

quality; and employer discrimination. Reemployment success was conceptual-

ized as consisting of five components: unemployment insurance exhaustion,

speed of reemployment, job improvement, and job-organization fit, which in turn

predict job attitudes and behavior (e.g., intention to quit).

In another recent model, Saks and Ashforth (2002) focused on P-J and P-O fit

perceptions and employment quality. They tested a model in which four job

search variables (preparatory job search behavior, active job search behavior,

job search effort, and career planning) predict perceptions of P-J and P-O fit, and

P-J and P-O fit predict employment quality (i.e., job attitudes and organizational

attitudes).

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Although there is some overlap between the models in terms of the predictors

(e.g., job search self-efficacy, personality variables), job search behaviors (job

search intensity), and outcomes (employment status and quality), there is also

considerable variability. In the following sections, a review of the research on the

predictors and outcomes of job search behaviors is provided and restricted to

those variables that have been studied most often and those found to be partic-

ularly important. Research on the predictors and outcomes of job search has

also varied as a function of sample type. Research has included new entrants to

the workforce (e.g., college graduates), employed job seekers, and unemployed

job seekers (job losers). College students have been used most often, followed

by unemployed job seekers, while reentrants to the workforce have seldom been

investigated.

Since the characteristics of these samples differ in terms of experience, moti-

vation, and the use of job search strategies, the predictors and outcomes of job

search might differ across studies depending on the nature of the samples used.

In fact, in a meta-analysis of the predictors and outcomes of job search by Kanfer

et al. (2001), sample type was a significant moderator variable affecting the

strength of relationships between the predictors and job search behaviors, and

between job search behaviors and employment outcomes. For example, Kanfer

et al. found that several of the personality dimensions of the five-factor model

(i.e., extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness) were more strongly related to

job search behavior for new entrants than job losers, whereas several situational

predictors (i.e., employment commitment and social support) were more strongly

related to job search behaviors among job losers.

JOB SEARCH BEHAVIORS

In their review of the job search literature, Schwab et al. (1987) indicated that em-

ployment outcomes are a function of the sources used to acquire information

about job openings and the intensity with which an individual pursues such in-

formation. While sources and intensity are among the most often studied job

search dimensions, job search research has included a number of other dimen-

sions of job search. In this section, the following job search behaviors are de-

scribed: (1) job information sources, (2) job search intensity, (3) job search effort,

(4) assertive job-seeking behavior, and (5) network intensity.

NFORMATION

OURCES

Job information sources are considered to be one of the most important dimen-

sions of job search and are among the most often studied. Sources refer to the

means by which job seekers learn about job opportunities. Both the recruitment

and job search literature has tended to distinguish between formal and informal

job information sources. Formal sources involve the use of public intermediaries

such as advertisements, employment agencies, and campus placement offices. In-

formal sources are private intermediaries such as friends, relatives, or persons

who are already employed in an organization (Saks & Ashforth, 1997).

Research on job information sources usually asks job applicants to indicate

from a list of job sources which ones they used during their job search. The total

number of sources indicated is used to create a score for total sources used as

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well as separate scores for informal and formal sources (Barber et al., 1994; Saks

& Ashforth, 2000).

EARCH

NTENSITY

Job search intensity refers to the frequency with which job seekers, during a set pe-

riod of time, engage in specific job search behaviors or activities such as prepar-

ing a resume or contacting an employment agency (Kanfer et al., 2001). Various

indicators have been used to measure search intensity, such as the number of em-

ployers contacted, the number of hours per week spent searching, and the num-

ber of sources used (Barber et al., 1994). However, most measures consist of a list

of job search activities, such as “prepared/revised your resume,” “telephoned a

prospective employer,” or “filled out a job application.” Respondents indicate

how frequently they performed each activity (e.g., 0 times to at least 10 times)

over a set time period, such as the past three months.

In response to the failure to distinguish among job search activities at different

stages of the job search process as well as the frequent use of single-item mea-

sures and dichotomous response scales, Blau (1993, 1994) developed two distinct

measures of job search intensity that he called preparatory job search behavior and

active job search behavior. Preparatory job search behavior involves gathering job

search information and identifying potential leads during the planning phase of

job search. Active job search behavior involves the actual job search and choice

process, such as sending out resumes and interviewing with prospective employ-

ers. Active job search is conceptualized as reflecting an individual’s behavioral

commitment to the job search (Blau, 1994).

EARCH

FFORT

Job search effort refers to the amount of energy, time, and persistence that a job

seeker devotes to his or her job search (Kanfer et al., 2001). Unlike measures of

job search intensity, measures of job search effort do not focus on specific job

search activities or behaviors. Blau (1993, 1994) developed a scale to measure gen-

eral effort in job search that asks respondents about the time and effort they have

devoted to their job search (e.g., “focused my time and effort on job search activi-

ties”). Based on confirmatory factor analyses across three diverse samples, Blau

(1994) found empirical support that general effort is related to, yet distinguish-

able from, preparatory and active job search behavior.

SSERTIVE

-S

EEKING

EHAVIOR

Assertive job seeking applies the concept of assertiveness to job search and refers to

the individual’s ability to identify his or her rights and choices during job search

and to act on them (Schmit et al., 1993). Specific behaviors include making follow-

up calls about the status of a job application and making calls to arrange meetings

with organizational representatives to discuss employment opportunities.

Although assertive job-seeking behavior is often recommended in the popu-

lar job search literature, only a few studies have actually measured it. Becker

(1980) developed a scale to measure assertive job-seeking behavior, called the

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Assertive Job-Hunting Survey (AJHS). The measure was found to have good

psychometric properties. In one of the few job search studies to use Becker’s

(1980) scale, Schmit et al. (1993) reported positive relationships between as-

sertive job-seeking behavior and employment among a sample of minimally ed-

ucated workers.

ETWORKING

NTENSITY

In popular job search books, networking is often purported to be one of the most

effective job search methods for finding employment, and research has often

shown that many people do find jobs by contacting friends, relatives, acquain-

tances, and contacts (Wanberg et al., 2000).

Networking is a specific job search behavior that involves contacting friends,

acquaintances, and referrals to obtain information and leads about job opportuni-

ties. More formally, it has been defined as “individual actions directed toward

contacting friends, acquaintances, and other people to whom the job seeker has

been referred for the main purpose of getting information, leads, or advice on get-

ting a job” (Wanberg et al., 2000, p. 492). A systematic and complete approach to

networking as a job search method involves making a list of contacts, informing

them that you are looking for employment, asking for job leads and referrals to

others who might be able to help, and contacting these leads and referrals (Wan-

berg et al., 2000).

Although networking activities are often included in job search intensity scales,

only one study has investigated the effectiveness of networking as a job search

method: Wanberg et al. (2000) examined the predictors and outcomes of network-

ing intensity in a sample of unemployed job seekers. They defined networking in-

tensity as the frequency and thoroughness of using networking during a job

search. Although networking intensity was related to a greater likelihood of

reemployment, it was not a significant predictor after controlling for job search

intensity. That is, it did not contribute further to reemployment outcomes beyond

job search intensity.

UMMARY

Research on job search has operationalized job search behavior in several ways.

Most research measures job search intensity, or the frequency with which job

seekers have performed specific job search activities within a set time period.

Blau (1993, 1994) designed separate scales to measure preparatory and active job

search behavior, though most studies have not made this distinction when meas-

uring job search intensity. Some studies measure job search effort or general ef-

fort and time spent searching for a job rather than performance of specific job

search activities. Another stream of research measures use of different formal

and informal job information sources. Finally, several studies have examined

more specific forms of job search behavior, such as assertive job-seeking behavior

and networking intensity. Most studies have measured only one type of job

search behavior, and there is some evidence that the relationships between pre-

dictors and outcomes of job search behavior vary as a function of the job search

measure used (Kanfer et al., 2001).

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PREDICTORS OF JOB SEARCH BEHAVIORS

As indicated earlier, models of job search have included a variety of individual

and situational predictors of job search behaviors. In fact, research has found that

a number of variables consistently predict job search and employment outcomes.

For the most part, the main predictors of job search behavior can be classified into

three main categories:

1. Biographical variables.

2. Individual difference variables.

3. Situational variables.

The size of the relationships between the predictors and job search behavior has

been found to depend on the job search measure and sample type. In their meta-

analysis, Kanfer et al. (2001) concluded that a number of the relationships between

the predictors and job search behavior were often stronger when measures of job

search intensity were used versus job search effort. For some predic

tors (i.e., ex-

traversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, education), the relationships were

stronger for new entrants, while for other predictors (i.e., self-esteem, employ-

ment commitment, social support), the relationships were stronger for unem-

ployed job seekers. In addition, previous job tenure related positively to search

behavior for new entrants but related negatively to search behavior for employed

and unemployed job seekers. Finally, the relationships between the predictors

and search behavior tend to be stronger than the relationships between the pre-

dictors and subsequent employment outcomes.

IOGRAPHICAL

ARIABLES

Biographical predictors of job search have usually consisted of gender, age, edu-

cation, race, and job tenure. In general, biographical variables tend to be only

weakly related to job search behavior compared to other predictors. In their

meta-analysis, Kanfer et al. (2001) concluded that age, race, gender, education,

and tenure were related to job search behavior; that is, older, non-White, female,

less educated, and longer tenured individuals engaged in less job search behavior

than younger, White, male, more educated, and less tenured individuals.

In a study on gender and job search methods, Huffman and Torres (2001)

found some differences between men and women in the use of formal and in-

formal job sources. For example, men were more likely to use informal sources

(friends and relatives) and direct applications. Women were more likely to use

newspaper ads, help-wanted signs, and temporary employment agencies.

There is also some evidence that biographical variables predict job search out-

comes. For example, Kanfer et al. (2001) found that younger, more educated job

seekers were more likely to find employment, and more educated and White job

seekers experience a shorter period of unemployment. In addition, males were more

likely to obtain employment but only if they were new entrants to the labor force.

NDIVIDUAL

IFFERENCE

ARIABLES

A number of individual difference or psychological variables have been included

in job search research. Various terms have been used to categorize these variables,

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such as personality variables (e.g., self-esteem), motivational factors (e.g., self-

efficacy), and attitudes toward employment and work (e.g., employment commit-

ment). Wanberg et al. (2002) referred to these variables as job-seeker human capital,

which they defined as “the ability, experience, personality, and other individual

difference characteristics of the job seeker” (p. 1102).

Self-Esteem Self-esteem is among the most common personality variables in-

cluded in job search research and was originally included in Schwab et al.’s (1987)

job search model. Specifically, they suggested that intensity is influenced by job

seekers’ self-esteem. A number of studies have found that self-esteem predicts

job search behavior and outcomes. For example, self-esteem has been found to re-

late negatively to the use of formal job sources and positively to job search inten-

sity and assertive job-seeking behavior. Higher self-esteem is also associated

with a shorter period of unemployment, more job offers received, and greater

likelihood of obtaining employment (Ellis & Taylor, 1983; Schmit et al., 1993). In

their meta-analysis, Kanfer et al. (2001) found that self-esteem was positively re-

lated to job search intensity and job search effort; however, the relationship was

stronger for intensity than effort and for job losers compared to new entrants.

Five-Factor Model There is some evidence that the dimensions of the five-factor

model of personality (Digman, 1990) are related to job search behaviors. In fact,

Kanfer et al. (2001) organized personality constructs used in job search research

on the basis of the five-factor model of personality. They found that extraversion

(the extent to which a person is outgoing versus shy) and conscientiousness (the

degree to which a person is responsible and achievement oriented) were the

strongest positive predictors of job search intensity and effort, followed by open-

ness to experience (the extent to which a person thinks flexibly and is receptive

to new ideas) and agreeableness (the extent to which a person is friendly and ap-

proachable), which were also significant predictors. Neuroticism (the extent to

which a person is prone to experience anxiety, self-doubt, and depression and

lacks emotional stability and control) related negatively to job search intensity

but not to job search effort. As well, higher levels of extraversion, conscientious-

ness, openness to experience, and agreeableness were related to a shorter period

of unemployment. Conscientiousness was positively related to employment status,

and neuroticism was negatively related to the number of job offers and employ-

ment status. Kanfer et al. found that some of these relationships were stronger f

new entrants than for job losers.

Job Search Self-Efficacy A cognitive-motivational variable that has received a con-

siderable amount of attention in job search research is job search self-efficacy,

which refers to a job seeker’s confidence in his or her ability to successfully per-

form a variety of job search activities (Wanberg et al., 1996, 1999). The results of

several studies have demonstrated that job search self-efficacy is one of the best

predictors of job search behavior and outcomes. In particular, job search self-

efficacy has been found to predict preparatory and active job search behaviors,

assertive job search behavior, job source usage, search duration, number of job

offers, and employment status (Kanfer & Hulin, 1985; Saks & Ashforth, 1999;

Schmit et al., 1993; Wanberg et al., 1999). In their meta-analysis, Kanfer et al.

(2001) found that job search self-efficacy was positively related to both job search

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intensity and job search effort, as well as the number of job offers received and

employment status, and negatively related to search duration.

Perceived Control Another motivational variable is job seekers’ perceived control

over their job search. Although locus of control (a set of general beliefs about

whether their behavior is controlled by internal or external forces) is only weakly

related to job search behavior (Kanfer et al., 2001), perceived situational control

has been found to relate positively to job search behaviors and employment sta-

tus. For example, Wanberg (1997) found that unemployed job seekers who had

higher levels of perceived situational control (perceived control over their unem-

ployment situation) conducted a more intense job search.

Saks and Ashforth (1999) developed a measure of perceived job search control

that asked job seekers about the influence and control they have over the out-

comes of their job search. Their results showed that perceived control predicted

the employment status of recent university graduates at the time of graduation

and four months later.

Ability Although few studies have included measures of ability, there is some

evidence that general cognitive ability might also play a role in job search. For ex-

ample, the cognitive ability of employed managers has been found to relate posi-

tively to job search (Boudreau, Boswell, Judge, & Bretz, 2001). Grade point average,

a surrogate measure of cognitive ability, has been found to correlate positivel

with active and preparatory job search behavior as well as employment status

among a sample of recent graduates at graduation and four months post-gradua

tion

(Saks & Ashforth, 1999).

Employment Commitment Employment commitment is an attitudinal variable

that reflects the importance and centrality of employment to a job seeker beyond

the income that results from being employed. As such, it reflects a general attach-

ment to work (Kanfer et al., 2001). Several studies have found employment com-

mitment to relate positively to job search intensity (Wanberg et al., 1999). Kanfer

et al. found that employment commitment predicted job search intensity and ef-

fort, and the relationship was stronger for job losers compared to new entrants.

ITUATIONAL

ARIABLES

Among situational predictors of job search, financial need and social support

have received a considerable amount of attention. Financial need, or hardship,

was one of the predictors of job search intensity in the Schwab et al. (1987) model.

Several more recent models have included social support as an important predic-

tor of job search behavior (Wanberg et al., 1996).

Financial Need/Hardship The basic premise behind this predictor is that individ-

uals who have greater financial obligations or who lack adequate financial re-

sources have a greater need and hence a stronger motive to find employment and

a greater likelihood of conducting a more intense job search (Wanberg et al., 1999).

Research has generally supported this prediction. Job seekers who have a

greater financial need or who are experiencing economic hardship tend to be more

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ntense in their search for employment (Kanfer et al., 2001; Wanberg et al., 1999).

Financial need has also been shown to relate positively to both preparatory and

active job search behaviors (Blau, 1994). Job seekers with greater unemployment

benefits or a longer duration of benefits tend to have lower job search intensity

and to remain unemployed for longer periods. Thus, financial need results in a

more intense job search and a shorter period of unemployment.

Job-Seeking Social Support One of the most important situational variables in job

search and coping with job loss is social or job-seeking support. Social support

refers to the network of friends and family who provide counseling, assistance,

and encouragement to job seekers. Social support has been shown to be particu-

larly important as a coping resource for individuals following job loss.

Several studies have shown that job-seeking support predicts job search behav-

ior and employment status (Wanberg et al., 1996). In fact, based on the results of

their study, Wanberg et al. concluded that “a significant other’s support for job

seeking plays a crucial role in increasing an unemployed individual’s job-seeking

behavior and subsequent reemployment” (p. 84). In their meta-analysis, Kanfer

et al. (2001) found that social support was positively related to job search intensity

and job search effort, and the relationship was stronger for job search intensity a

for job losers than new entrants.

UMMARY

Research over the past 10 years has shown that job search behavior and, to a lesser

extent, job search outcomes are predicted by a number of individual and situa-

tional variables. Although biographical variables are often included as control

variables, they tend to be weak predictors of job search behaviors and outcomes.

Among the personality or psychological variables, self-esteem, extraversion,

and conscientiousness have been found to predict job search behavior, and self-

esteem and conscientiousness also predict job search outcomes. Two motivational

variables, job search self-efficacy and perceived control, have been found to pre-

dict job search behavior and outcomes, and job search self-efficacy has been

found to be one of the best predictors of job search behavior. A job seeker’s com-

mitment to employment has also been shown to predict job search behavior.

Among the situational variables, financial hardship and social support predict

job search intensity.

Finally, a number of other predictor variables, such as job seeker reemployment

constraints (Wanberg et al., 2002), networking comfort (Wanberg et al., 2000), and

motivation and emotion control (Wanberg et al., 1999), have also been included as

predictor variables in job search research. However, they have not been included in

this review either because they have seldom been studied, they are specific to cer-

tain kinds of job search behavior (e.g., networking comfort predicts networking

intensity), or they have simply not been found to be useful predictors.

OUTCOMES OF JOB SEARCH BEHAVIORS

Job search models include outcomes or consequences of job search. For example,

in the Schwab et al. (1987) model, job search intensity predicts whether a job

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