
as Austria and The Netherlands, have introduced
upper limits for other types of vegetables. In Austria,
guideline levels are laid down for a range of other
vegetables, including carrots, cabbage, and parsley.
Switzerland has levels for nitrates in cheese and infant
foods as well as vegetables. Outside Europe, Argen-
tina sets levels for nitrates in various milk products.
Radioactivity
0023 Natural radioactivity occurs in all foods, arising from
the radioactive isotopes carbon-14 and potassium-40.
The specific activity of carbon-14 is relatively low;
however, potassium-40 gives rise to specific activities
of 40–50 Bq kg
1
in cows’ milk, 400–500 Bq kg
1
in
milk powder, 600–800 Bq kg
1
in concentrated fruit
juice, and over 1000 Bq kg
1
in instant coffee. There
is no legislation governing this radioactivity since it
cannot be eliminated, and consumption of such foods
does not significantly alter the potassium content,
and hence the potassium radioactivity of the body.
0024 Human exposure to radiation is laid down in law
and national measures are usually based on recom-
mendations of the International Committee for
Radiological Protection (ICRP). Drinking water con-
tributes a very small radiation dose to total popula-
tion exposure and is largely due to naturally
occurring radionuclides in the uranium and thorium
decay series. WHO has established guideline levels
for radioactivity in drinking water, based on ICRP
recommendations and available data on risk expos-
ure. Some countries lay down limits for radionuclides
in bottled waters, for example in the USA, Sweden,
Israel, and Switzerland.
0025 Before the accident at Chernobyl nuclear power
station in 1986, very few countries had radioactivity
limits for food since the policy was, and still is, to
control emission and waste at source, with local inci-
dents being handled by monitoring of food and popu-
lation. Contamination of food on a continental scale
arising from Chernobyl required immediate action
and resulted in the EU setting limits for radioactive
contamination of imports from outside its member
states. Since then, contamination levels have de-
creased to a negligible risk of health, and later rules
exclude a number of products from the scope of the
original regulation. There is a maximum tolerance of
370 Bq kg
1
for combined cesium-134 and cesium-
137 in milk, milk products, and special infant foods,
and a single level of 600 Bq kg
1
for other food
products concerned. In 1999, the EU established pro-
cedures for carrying out checks on the radiocesium
content of such foods. A number of countries
followed the EU post-Chernobyl regulation. Infant
foods, milk, and milk products, and animal foods
are among the most widely regulated commodities
in this regard. The EU has also established a
regulation setting maximum permitted levels for
radioactive contamination of foodstuffs, which
could be applied in the event of a future nuclear
accident or other radiological emergency potentially
involving radionuclides other than cesium.
Mycotoxins
0026Theconcernoverthecarcinogenichazardofmyco-
toxins has also increased in recent years. Mycotoxin
contamination is most often related to the susceptibility
of certain crops, especially grains and nuts, during
storage, to the attack by toxin-producing fungi, in
particular Aspergillus flavus, which produces a group
of highly toxic metabolites called aflatoxins.
0027Specific mycotoxin legislation was developed in
several countries as a result of the discovery of afla-
toxin in the early 1960s; it was later extended to other
mycotoxins, including patulin, ergot, ochratoxin A,
and pomphsin. Currently, levels for some mycotoxins
are regulated at EU level, namely aflatoxins B
1
,B
2
,
G
1
,G
2
in nuts, dried fruit, cereal products, and spices
and a level of aflatoxin M
1
in milk, and limits
for ochratoxin A in cereals and vine fruit. Limits for
mycotoxins in infant foods and patulin in fruit juices
have been proposed, and further categories for ochra-
toxin A are under review at EU level. Certain coun-
tries may control the presence of aflatoxins in other
foods, as is the case in Germany, where limits are laid
down for enzyme preparations, dietetic foods for
babies and infants, milk, and other foodstuffs. Regu-
lations on aflatoxins in non-EU countries, where they
exist, usually determine levels for peanuts and peanut
products and milk, or lay down a general level for all
foodstuffs. Table 4 gives examples of maximum levels
of aflatoxins in foodstuffs, especially nuts and nut
products, in major countries worldwide.
Inherent Toxic Substances
0028If present in excessive amounts, certain inherent
toxins pose a threat to human health. Whilst such
toxins are not widely regulated, some countries have
laid down product-specific tolerances in certain
instances. For example, Finland has levels for
solanidine glycosides in potatoes and for indole in
crustaceans; however, in general, natural toxins can
be controlled through regulations that establish
species and strains that are for food use.
0029Levels for shellfish toxins have been established by
a number of countries, including Japan and the USA,
as well as in the EU. The adverse health implications
associated with erucic acid content in some rapeseed
3510 LEGISLATION/Contaminants and Adulterants