Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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0044 The overall trend observed in legislation on pesti-

cides is that they are drawn up on a very restrictive

basis; only those pesticides in the lists may be used

and maximum levels should not exceed those laid

down, unless special authorization is granted.

Veterinary Medicines

0045 ‘Veterinary medicines’ is a generic term embracing all

substances that have an effect on the functioning of

the organisms of the animal, whether administered by

injection or through animal feed. Concerns over

human health relate to possible immunological effects

of repeated exposures to antibiotic residues, the pos-

sible development of antibiotic-resistant strains of

pathogens, and the possible adverse effect of animal

hormones on humans. The trend observed across

major countries worldwide is for the prohibition or

restriction of residues of veterinary medicines in food-

stuffs. This may be made under the power of food

acts, general health regulations, or under specific

food commodity standards. For example, the EU,

USA, Canada, and South Africa have regulations set-

ting maximum residue levels of antibiotics for a wide

range of foodstuffs of animal origin.

0046 In addition to the indirect presence of antibiotic

residues in foodstuffs, certain substances having an

antibiotic effect may be intentionally added to foods

as preservatives. Examples of the most widely regu-

lated and used are natamycin and nisin, which are

permitted in processed cheese in a great number of

countries worldwide.

0047 The concern over use of growth promoters in the

treatment of animals intended for human consump-

tion results from possible carcinogenic and teratogenic

effects. There is a great deal of legislation in the EU in

this regard, including directives on the following:

0048 The trade in animals treated with certain sub-

stances having hormonal action and their meat.

0049 Methods to detect residues of substances having a

hormonal and thyrostatic action.

0050 Prohibiting the use in livestock farming of certain

substances having a hormonal action.

0051 The legislation of non-EU countries also tends to

concentrate on the control of the use of hormones in

animal feed and meat for human consumption.

See also: Adulteration of Foods: History and

Occurrence; Consumer Protection Legislation in the

UK; Contamination of Food; European Union:

European Food Law Harmonization; Hazard Analysis

Critical Control Point; Heavy Metal Toxicology; Metals

Used in the Food Industry; Mycotoxins: Occurrence

and Determination; Pesticides and Herbicides: Types,

Uses, and Determination of Herbicides; Toxicology;

Radioactivity in Food; Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage;

Molds in Spoilage; Yeasts in Spoilage; Toxins in Food –

Naturally Occurring

Further Reading

Egmond HP (1999) Natural toxins I. Mycotoxins. In: van

der Heijden K, Younes M, Fishbein L and Miller S (eds)

International Food Safety Handbook: Science, Inter-

national Regulation, and Control, pp. 341–355. New

York: Marcel Dekker.

Elmadfa I (1999) Expertgutachten zur Lebensmittelsicher-

heit Nitrat. Vienna: Institut fu

r Erna

hrunugswissen-

schaften der Universita

t Wien.

Gray PS (1991) Agriculture and trade. Radioactivity

in foods. In: Segersta

hl B (ed.) Chernobyl, A Policy

Response Study. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

Gray PS (1999) The regulation of food safety – general

aspects. In: van der Heijden K, Younes M, Fishbein L

and Miller S (eds) International Food Safety Handbook:

Science, International Regulation, and Control, pp.

597–615. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Legislation Unit (1999, updated) Contaminants in Food-

stuffs – An International Review of Maximum Limits

Part 1. Leatherhead, UK: Leatherhead Food RA.

Legislation Unit (2000, updated March 2001) Contamin-

ants in Foodstuffs – An International Review of Max-

imum Limits Part 2. Leatherhead, UK: Leatherhead

Food RA.

Richmond M (1990) The Microbiological Safety of Food –

Report of the Committee on the Microbiological Safety

of Food to the Secretary of State for Health, the Minister

of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and the Secretaries

for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. London: Her

Majesty’s Stationery Office.

Smith JS, Smith JA and Douek NL (eds) (1993, updated

April 2002) EC Food Legislation, vol. 1, 3rd edn.

Leatherhead, UK: LFRA.

Codex

P Berry Ottaway, Berry Ottaway & Associates Ltd,

Hereford, UK

Introduction

0001From the mid-1960s, the Codex Alimentarius

(Codex) has grown in importance as the forum for

the development of international standards and codes

of practice for food commodities and products.

Codex now has an enhanced role in the international

trade in food as it is the preferred organization for the

arbitration of disputes under the World Trade Organ-

ization (WTO) agreements.

LEGISLATION/Codex 3513

Background

0002 The Codex Alimentarius Commission was inaugur-

ated in 1963 as a subsidiary body of the World Health

Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The name

Codex Alimentarius was derived from the Latin and

can be translated as ‘food code.’ In the early 1960s,

when the Commission was established, there was

already a perceived need to facilitate world trade in

food and food commodities and it was believed that

this could be helped by the development of inter-

nationally accepted standards.

0003 Although most of the developed countries had

detailed food legislation, sometimes for centuries,

there was a diversity of approach to food control.

Barriers to international trade in foods were develop-

ing at a time when improvements in food preservation

techniques and transport meant that international

trade in food was no longer being limited by either

the perishability of the food or the means to transport

it safely.

0004 The Codex Alimentarius, or Codex system, as it is

now more commonly known, was set up to facilitate

trade by establishing internationally acceptable

standards and codes of practice for the production

and handling of food. The objectives were to provide

added protection for consumer health and to promote

fair practices in the food trade. To accomplish these

objectives, Codex has to try and harmonize the best

features of ideas and concepts devised by its various

national members.

Membership of the Codex Alimentarius

Commission

0005 All member nations and associate members of the FAO

and WHO can become members of Codex. The mem-

bership has increased over the years and 165 countries

were Codex members in 2000, representing 97% of

the world’s population. The activities are funded by the

regular budgets of both the FAO and WHO. There are

no other financial obligations on members except that

an important contribution, mainly in terms of services,

is made by those member states who act as host coun-

tries for the meetings of the Codex Committees. As

there is no requirement for a financial contribution

from the individual members, it means that the poorer

nations can participate in Codex activities on equal

terms with the wealthier ones.

Codex and the World Trade Organization

0006 The beginning of 1995 marked the start of a new era

in world trade with the establishment of the WTO.

The aims of WTO are ‘to provide the common insti-

tutional framework for the conduct of trade relations

among its members in matters related to the agree-

ments and associated legal instruments.’ The actual

functions of the WTO are to facilitate the implemen-

tation and operation of the Multilateral Trade Agree-

ments; to provide a forum for trade negotiations

concerning multilateral trade; to administer trade

disputes; to monitor national trade policies; and to

cooperate with the International Monetary Fund and

the World Bank.

0007The Codex Alimentarius has gained a greater sig-

nificance since the formation of the WTO. The Agree-

ment on the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) that

was introduced following the Tokyo Round on World

Trade in 1979 had a substantial impact on the estab-

lishment of policies on food control. The TBT agree-

ment does not specifically mention Codex but dealt

with aspects of food not directly related to safety such

as labeling, quality, and packaging and thus impinged

on Codex. The WTO, however, has recognized

Codex as the preferred international organization

for the arbitration and settlement of disputes related

to food trade.

The Codex Alimentarius

0008The Codex Alimentarius used to consist of 25

volumes, of which 17 consisted of the agreed Codex

standards and the remainder of the recommended

codes of practice and guidelines. In the 1990s

these were revised into 13 volumes (Table 1). The

published volumes of the Codex are available in

English, French, and Spanish. Individual standards

tbl0001Table 1 Structure of the Codex Alimentarius

Volume Subject matter

1A General requirements

1B General requirements – food hygiene

2A Pesticide residues in foods (general texts)

2B Pesticide residues in foods (maximum residue limits)

3 Residues of veterinary drugs in foods

4 Foods for special dietary uses (including foods for

infants and children)

5A Processed and quick-frozen fruits and vegetables

5B Fresh fruits and vegetables

6 Fruit juices

7 Cereals, pulses (legumes), and derived products and

vegetable proteins

8 Fats and oils and related products

9 Fish and fishery products

10 Meat and meat products; soups and broths

11 Sugars, cocoa products, and chocolate and

miscellaneous products

12 Milk and milk products

13 Methods of analysis and sampling

3514 LEGISLATION/Codex

are being made available on the worldwide web and

CD-ROM.

Codex Standards

0009 The purpose of a Codex standard is to set out the

required qualities of a food or commodity as sold.

The standard has to be set out in objective terms and

the required features should be able to be verified.

Where necessary, procedures for the verification of a

given parameter are included. When a standard has

been adopted, the Codex Alimentarius Commission

will recommend it to the governments of its member

states and invite them to accept the standard and

embody it in their national law. The governments

are also asked for their reactions to the standard and

all their responses are collated and published as part

of the Codex Alimentarius.

0010 Codex standards are by nature quantitative in that

they have to give limits for most of the parameters

such as the minimum required or the maximum

allowed and, in some cases, both. If such limits are

to have any validity, it must be possible to check the

product’s compliance by agreed measurements or an-

alysis. A test must be capable of being carried out to

similar degrees of accuracy by different laboratories

across the world. In the development of testing

methods there are always a number of issues sur-

rounding the validity of tests, including the sampling

procedures and the problem that food products are

not always sufficiently homogenous. These problems

have to be considered and resolved by the Codex

Committee on Methods of Analysis and Sampling

(CCMAS).

0011 The CCMAS has established methods that may be

used as agreed procedures by producers, processors,

quality examiners, enforcement agencies, and trades

worldwide. In summary, these methods:

0012 define what is being measured and the units in

which the answers are to be expressed;

0013 describe in detail and with precision how measure-

ments are to be made;

0014 specify how the results should be interpreted (i.e.,

to determine whether or not the sample complies

with the requirement of the standard).

The methods are normally devised from those

developed in various countries and they have to be

validated to international satisfaction through prac-

tical evaluation in a number of different laboratories.

It is important that all methods become internationally

accepted procedures and there is the advantage that, by

developing them through the Codex system, the high

cost of development can be shared by a number of

countries. This also has a direct benefit for the smaller

member countries with limited resources.

0015Once a standard together with its methods of an-

alysis and sampling has been agreed, the next step in

the Codex system is to get the standard accepted by

the governments of the member countries. There are

various levels of acceptance and each type, together

with its attendant obligations, is detailed in the Codex

Procedural Manual.

0016The acceptances fall into three sets of conditions:

full acceptance; acceptance with specified deviations;

and free distribution. Under the conditions of full

acceptance, the products to which the Codex stand-

ard and criteria apply, both home-produced and

imported, should comply with all relevant require-

ments. A country may also accept the standard with

specified deviation. In such cases statements giving

the reasons for the deviations from the standard or

required limits are necessary. A country may also

determine that a product conforming to the stand-

ard and defined limits may be allowed unrestricted

distribution.

0017The conditions of acceptance are slightly different

for certain types of standards. There are differences

between those for general standards such as nutrition

labeling and those for specific commodity standards.

For some, such as the Codex Maximum Limits for

Residues of Pesticides and Veterinary Drugs in Food,

acceptance with specified deviations is not allowed.

0018Governments are formally requested to indicate

which form of acceptance they are adopting and

their responses form part of the Codex Alimentarius.

This section is regularly updated and permits those

involved in international trade to determine the cur-

rent state of the various national regulations for those

foods that are covered by Codex standards.

0019As the current voluntary adoption procedure with

its options does not appear compatible with the WTO

system, and as the Codex Alimentarius is the officially

recognized reference for international standards in

terms of food safety, changes to the acceptance pro-

cedure are being discussed.

Codex Codes of Practice and Guidelines

0020Whilst the development and use of Codex standards

effectively produces product specifications, it is also

important that issues such as hygiene and good manu-

facturing practice (GMP) are also addressed, prefer-

ably in the context of the Codex Alimentarius. A

series of Codex codes of practice and guidelines

have been compiled from the collective knowledge

and experience of members and observers. Such

compilations include the general principles of food

hygiene and recommended international codes of

practice for a wide range of foods, including fishery

products, low-acid canned foods, egg products,

frozen fruits and vegetables, and dried milk.

LEGISLATION/Codex 3515

0021 The objectives of the codes of practice and guide-

lines are fourfold. They provide checklists on GMP

for the established processors and also guidance for

new or expanding processors in the setting-up of

production operations in terms of premises, equip-

ment, manufacturing methods, and control.

0022 The codes and guidelines also assist the food con-

trol and monitoring agencies by providing guidance

on internationally recommended methods and pro-

vide the food industry with grounds for supporting

recommended practices and for rebuttal of criticism.

As they are codes or guidelines, as opposed to clearly

defined standards, they can allow for adjustment to

meet particular local circumstances but still provide

the essential requirements to support GMP.

0023 Before a code of practice and guideline can be

adopted within Codex, representatives of the member

governments must give their assent. This level of na-

tional recognition should encourage the authorities

within the countries to develop their criteria in an

internationally accepted rather than an arbitrary

manner.

The Codex Organizations

0024 The development of Codex standards, codes of prac-

tice, and guidelines are coordinated by the Codex

Alimentarius Commission and its Executive Com-

mittee. The Commission is also supported by the

Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards

Programme in Rome, Italy.

0025 The detailed work on Codex is divided between a

number of committees. The committees have been set

up so that some focus on ‘horizontal’ issues such as

food labeling, whilst others are concerned with ‘ver-

tical’ issues such as specific requirements for foods for

special dietary uses. During the development of a

standard it will be considered by both types of com-

mittee as necessary.

0026 In addition, there are five regional coordinating

committees covering Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin

America and the Caribbean, and North America

and South-West Pacific. The Commission and its

committees can receive advice from FAO and

WHO Expert Committees such as the Joint

FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.

0027 There are also three other intergovernmental

bodies dealing with specific groups of commodities

which report to the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

These are a Joint FAO and WHO Committee of Gov-

ernment Experts on the Code of Principles Concern-

ing Milk and Milk Products, a Joint United Nations

Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)/Codex

Group of Experts on Fruit Juices, and a Joint UNECE/

Codex Group of Experts on Quick Frozen Foods.

0028The Codex committees are grouped as either spe-

cific or general subject committees, of which there are

currently nine dealing with horizontal subjects such

as food additives, labeling and pesticide residues. The

other committees are responsible for specific groups

of commodities such as fats and oils or vegetable

proteins. There have been 15 Codex Commodity

Committees, some of which have been adjourned,

leaving seven active in 2002 (Figure 1).

0029As part of Codex policy, each committee has a host

country. The governments of the host countries are

responsible for hosting the meetings of their allocated

committee and for providing the administrative infra-

structure for the meetings. As the host country also

takes financial responsibility for the meetings held in

its territory, the current host countries are mostly in

North America or western Europe. New Zealand

hosted the Meat Hygiene Committee from 1972

until its adjournment in 1983 and Hungary took

over the Methods of Analysis and Sampling Commit-

tee from Germany in 1972, and the Committee on

Tropical Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, which was

formed in 1988, is hosted by Mexico.

0030Due to rapid developments in biotechnology, and

particularly genetic engineering, Codex has formed a

task force on biotechnology. This task force held its

first meeting in March 2000 during which it agreed

to develop principles for the risk analysis of foods

obtained through modern biotechnology and to

develop guidelines for the safety assessment of foods

obtained by such processes.

Development of Codex Standards

0031The present procedures for the development and

adoption of Codex standards have evolved from a

number of years of practical experience. The basis

on which the mechanism relies is the requirement

for objectivity at all stages of the development of a

standard. The procedure must also be sufficiently

robust to accommodate a dichotomy of views and

approaches and to bring them together to an agreed

standard. Due to the often very large attendance, the

committee meetings have to be structured to allow

the business to be conducted efficiently. The proced-

ure has been broken down into eight discrete steps:

Step 1

0032A decision is taken by the Commission to elaborate a

standard on a particular subject. The requirement

may be either horizontal (e.g., requirements for the

nutrition labeling of foods), or vertical (e.g., require-

ments for the composition of a specific category of

food products). After the decision is made by the

Commission, the work is assigned to the appropriate

3516 LEGISLATION/Codex

Animal

feeding

(Denmark)

Foods derived

from

biotechnology

(Japan)

Fruit and

vegetable

juices (Brazil)

Cocoa products

and chocolate

(Switzerland)

adjourned

Sugars (UK)

adjourned

Meat hygiene

(New Zealand)

adjourned

Processed meat

and poultry

products

(Denmark)

Vegetable

proteins

(Canada)

adjourned

Fresh fruits

and vegetables

(Mexico)

Cereals, pulses,

and legumes

(USA)

adjourned

Natural

mineral waters

(Switzerland)

adjourned

Edible ices

(Sweden)

adjourned

Soups and

broths

(Switzerland)

adjourned

Fats and oils

(UK)

CODEX

ALIMENTARIUS

COMMISSION

Joint UNECE

codex alimentarius

groups of experts

Ad Hoc task

forces

Regional

coordinating

committees

Commodity codex

committees

(worldwide)

General-subject codex

committees

(worldwide)

General principles

(France)

Fruit juices

North America/

South-west

Pacific

(Australia)

Latin America/

Caribbean

(Dominican

Republic)

Africa

(Uganda)

Near East

(Egypt)

Europe (Spain)

Asia (Thailand)

Milk and milk

products (New

Zealand)

Fish and

fishery

products

(Norway)

Foods for

special dietary

uses

(Germany)

Processed

fruits and

vegetables

(USA)

Import/export

inspection and

certification

(Australia)

Nutrition and foods

for special dietary

purposes (Germany)

Food hygiene (USA)

Food labeling

(Canada)

Pesticide residues

(Netherlands)

Food additives and

contaminants

(Netherlands)

Residues of veterinary

drugs in foods (USA)

Analysis and sampling

(Hungary)

Joint FAO/WHO

Meeting on

Pesticide Residues

Advice from

other bodies

Joint FAO/WHO

Expert Committee

on Food Additives

Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO

Expert Committee

on Food Irradiation

Joint FAO/WHO

committee of

government experts

on the code of

principles concerning

milk and milk products

Executive

committee

Secretariat

Quick frozen

foods

fig0001 Figure 1 Organization of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization; WHO, World Health Organization; IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency;

UNECE, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.

committee. In some circumstances the decision may

also be taken by the committee and endorsed by the

Commission.

Step 2

0033 The Secretariat arranges for a proposed draft stand-

ard to be drawn up. This will include consultation

with the Committee and the relevant experts and

interests in the particular field.

Step 3

0034 The proposed draft standard is sent to all the member

governments and international organizations for

comments.

Step 4

0035 The Secretariat collates the comments and forwards

then to the Committee.

Step 5

0036 Once agreed, the proposed draft standard is sent

through the Secretariat to the Commission for adop-

tion as a draft standard. The Commission adopts the

proposal as a draft standard on the basis of a majority

of the votes cast.

Step 6

0037 The adopted draft standard is sent to the governments

and international organizations for comment.

Step 7

0038 The Secretariat collates and forwards the comments

to the Committee.

Step 8

0039 When finally agreed, the draft standard is returned to

the Commission for adoption as a Codex standard,

which is then sent to the governments for their

acceptance.

0040 When a proposal is adopted by the Commission as

a draft standard (step 5), in certain circumstances the

Commission may, on the basis of a two-thirds major-

ity of the votes cast, decide on a simplified procedure

which takes the draft directly to Step 8. A decision to

go to the simplified procedure can be taken in the case

of urgent problems related to trade or public health;

the revision or updating of existing Codex standards;

or in the case of matters concerning new scientific

information or technology.

0041 The proposed draft standard and draft standards

are considered in detail at the biannual committee

meetings to which the member governments are en-

couraged to send delegates. The meetings are run in a

democratic way and the national delegates have an

equal say regardless of the size of their country.

Unlike the European Union, where the development

of legislation is governed by a weighted voting system

whereby the larger countries have more votes than the

smaller members of the Community, consensus in

Codex committees is reached with all member

countries having an equal say.

0042For each Codex or Commission meeting the

agenda is effectively set by the status of the draft

standard following the previous meeting. In prepar-

ation for each meeting the Secretariat will send out,

some months in advance, circular letters to the gov-

ernments and interested organizations with notifica-

tion of the specific items in the draft which require an

opinion or comment. Those replies which are re-

ceived in time are made available before the meeting

so that all members can assess the range and nature of

the opinions.

0043At the meetings verbal argument can supplement

or discuss the written opinions and it is not unusual

for divergent views to be presented during the first

stages of the development of a standard. These are

often due to serious differences of interest. A section

dealing with consumer interest in one country

may have a social or economic impact upon another.

A good example of this would be where a proposal

put forward by an importing country for unrealistic-

ally low levels of pesticides in a food could lead to

serious economic problems for a producing country.

The advantage of the meetings is that it provides a

forum in which the various views can be aired and

where views on both the risks and benefits of pro-

posals can be discussed and objective solutions

agreed.

0044Before each meeting adjourns, a draft report on the

meeting and its conclusions is discussed, amended,

and adopted. The agreed report is then circulated.

0045The procedure for the development of a Codex

standard normally takes between 7 and 10 years to

accomplish. Although a few Codex committees meet

annually, the Commission and most of the commit-

tees only meet biannually. This has the limitation in

that the time scale can make it difficult for the Codex

to keep pace with a rapidly changing scientific and

political environment. As a consequence, additional

working groups may have to be convened to consider

urgent matters reflecting a changing environment,

such as international concerns over the trade in

genetically modified foods.

Codex and Food Safety

0046There are a number of areas of consumer protection

and health where Codex has already played a signifi-

cant role. One of these areas is food safety. Food

3518 LEGISLATION/Codex

safety is multifaceted and each aspect may need a

particular approach.

0047 For example, poor food hygiene is a major cause of

human illness worldwide and exceeds by manyfold

the effects on the consumer from other aspects of food

safety. Most food hygiene problems are due to faulty

handling of the food, often through ignorance. Whilst

establishing good hygiene practices is relatively easy

in principle, the realities of life are that it is far more

difficult to maintain the standards.

0048 Codex has, therefore, developed a number of

international codes of hygiene and/or technological

practice. These cover the requirements for premises,

equipment, and handling procedures. In addition to

the general principles of food hygiene, Codex has

specific codes relating to commodity groups such as

fish and fishery products, egg products, meat and

poultry products, and dried milk. These Codes are

complemented by the Codex General Principles for

the Establishment of Microbiological Criteria in

Food. These principles have been developed with

their practical application in mind and include clear

advice on how microbiological testing can be used to

check ingredients and processes and to determine the

necessary actions or changes before problems de-

velop. It is also indicated that the testing can be

adapted so assurance can be obtained that the provi-

sions in the codes have been observed. This latter

aspect has relevance to imported foods. In addition,

the principles are laid down by which to determine

those instances or foods where the presence of specific

microorganisms in excessive numbers means that the

food should not reach the consumer. These specific

provisions were developed as it was recognized that in

the absence of such guidelines it was possible that the

control authorities in some countries might place ex-

cessive importance on numerical data for some

microorganisms, which might lead to needless rejec-

tion of a food without any increase in consumer

protection.

0049 Other areas of food safety where Codex is directly

involved are contaminants and additives. The term

contaminants is used in this context to denote the

presence in food of small quantities of undesirable

substances such as dioxins or polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs), and the elements that can cause

health hazards such as lead, mercury, and cadmium.

The Codex Committee on Food Additives has the

responsibility of setting achievable limits for these

contaminants.

0050 Although the use of agricultural chemicals such as

pesticides has become essential to modern agricul-

tural and horticultural practices, their residues in

food have consistently given rise to concerns. Lists

of pesticides which should be authorized for use have

been drawn up by the Codex Committee on Pesticide

Residues. These lists have been developed from the

work of the Committee of Experts of the FAO/WHO

Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues. As a result of

this work, over 2000 maximum residue limits have

been defined based on advice from the Expert Com-

mittee on Toxicity and also the procedures of good

agricultural practice. In a similar way, committees are

considering the complex problems of veterinary drug

and hormone residues in foods.

0051Food additives play an important part in the qual-

ity and safety of much of the processed food. The

Codex Committee on Food Additives (CCFA) has

responsibility of implementing the reports of the

Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA).

JECFA is a group of independent and internationally

recognized experts which is appointed jointly by

WHO and FAO to review and report on the safety

of additives.

0052The CCFA has, as a primary task, to consider the

technological need for an additive on the one hand

and the JEFCA safety evaluation on the other. To

accomplish this, it has to elicit from the Codex Com-

modity committees both the degree of usage of the

additive and its importance to the various sectors of

the industry. It is the responsibility of both the CCFA

and JECFA to treat all additives on an equal and

objective basis and to give equal consideration to

those of both natural and synthetic origin.

0053In dealing with additives it is important for the

governments, enforcement agencies, and the public

that any of the additives listed as permitted in foods

have been considered by a group of independent

and respected experts who have provided an im-

partial consensus opinion that can be accepted

with confidence. One of the strengths of Codex is

that it provides the structure by which this can be

accomplished.

The Future of Codex

0054The recognition by the WTO and the greater involve-

ment of the developing countries are contributing to

the strength of Codex. The Codex Commission is

aware of the need to keep pace with changing food

quality and safety concepts and developments such as

the application of genetic engineering to the food

supply. The strength of Codex has been and will

continue to be its truly international base.

See also: Food Additives: Safety; Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations; Food Safety;

Legislation: History; International Standards; Additives;

Contaminants and Adulterants; World Health

Organization

LEGISLATION/Codex 3519

Further Reading

Codex Alimentarius Commission (1999) Rules of Proced-

ure of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Available

on line at HTTP:www.fao.org. Directory: waicent/

faoinfo/ economic/esn/codex/Manual/Files:rules.htm.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,

World Health Organization (1989) Introducing Codex

Alimentarius. Rome: FAO/WHO Joint Secretariat.

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LEGUMES

Contents

Legumes in the Diet

Dietary Importance

Legumes in the Diet

M A Uebersax and L G Occen

a,MichiganState

University,EastLansing,MI,USA

Introduction

000 1 Legumes are a vital food resource which contribute to

the nutritional well-being of diverse human diets.

They provide essential nutrients and high levels of

protein with moderate levels of energy and dietary

fiber. This article discusses the structural features,

chemical composition, handling, storage, processing,

and utilization of legumes.

General Features

000 2 The term legume is derived from a Latin word legu-

men, meaning seeds harvested in pods. Alternative

terms for the edible seeds include grain legumes and

pulse, from the Latin puls, meaning pottage. Food

legumes refer to those species of the plant family

Leguminosae (pea or bean family) that are consumed

directly as mature dry seeds, as immature green seeds,

or even as green pods with the immature seeds en-

closed. The plants vary in size from tiny wild vetches

to large trees. Most of the important legumes in the

human diet are mainly herbaceous, often annuals,

and grow throughout the world. Table 1 lists some

of the more important food legumes with their scien-

tific and common names. Two categories of grain

legumes are: (1) oilseeds such as soy beans and

groundnuts, grown for their protein and oil content;

and (2) pulses, or grain legumes, including common

beans and peas, which are grown principally as a

protein source and used either as boiled whole grain

in different preparations or as split seeds.

0003Only about 20 out of approximately 13 000 species

of legumes are commonly consumed, with most of the

consumption occurring in Central and South Amer-

ica, Africa, and Asia. World consumption (percentage

of total) of common beans has been characterized by

regions as follows: Latin America 46.6%; Africa

24.3%; western Europe 6.3%; eastern Europe

7.0%; Asia 4.5%; Middle East 4.0%; and North

America 7.5%. The pattern of consumption and pref-

erence for one type of legume over another depends

upon the availability in the area. The annual per

capita supply for 1998 is highest for Central America

(13.7 kg), followed by South America (10.3), sub-

Sahara (8.8 kg), Africa (8.2 kg), North America

(7.2 kg), Asia (5.4 kg), Oceania (4.8 kg), and Europe

(2.7 kg). However, the annual per capita consumption

of legumes of some Mediterranean countries (except

Lebanon 14.5 kg; Turkey 13.5 kg) is more than twice

as much as the rest of Europe.

0004World production of major food legumes exceeds

59  10

t per annum Table 2. India is the world’s

leading producer, as well as the world’s leading im-

porter of pulses. Canada is the leading world exporter

of pulses; Australia, Myanmar, China, and the USA

are also world exporters outside the European Com-

munity (EC). India, China, and the USA are the major

peanut-producing countries, with India contributing

nearly 30% of total world production.

3520 LEGUMES/Legumes in the Diet

Structural and Anatomical Features of

Legume Seeds

0005 The seeds of leguminous plants differ in color, size,

shape, and seed coat thickness. The seed coat (testa) is

the outermost layer of the seed that protects the

embryonic structure from damage caused by water

absorption and microbial contamination. Figure 1

illustrates the anatomical features of a legume seed.

The hilum (large, oval attachment scar) and the

micropyle (minute opening in the seed coat) regulate

seed water imbibition. The internal structure of the

seed includes the shoot (leaf tissue), consisting of two

cotyledons and the embryonic axes, including the

epicotyl (stem tip), hypocotyl (stem), and the radicle

(root). Seed coat thickness, seed volume, hilum size,

and protein and starch content all influence water

absorption.

0006 The seed coat comprises between 6% and 8% of

the total seed weight. The major components of the

seed coat of legumes include the waxy cuticle layer

(hydrophobic barrier), intermediate layer (palisade

and hourglass cells) and the thick-cell-walled paren-

chyma cells that appear spongy and swell dramatic-

ally during hydration.

0007 The cotyledon, which contains reserve starch and

protein, is the largest component of the dry bean by

both weight and volume. Processed texture and nutri-

ent availability of beans are both influenced by the

dimension and arrangement of the cotyledon cells.

The outermost layers consist of epidermal cells, con-

taining granular protein structures with limited

starch, and the hypodermis, which has larger, elliptic-

ally shaped cells. The parenchyma cells comprise the

largest portion of the cotyledon. These cells are

bound by a distinct cell wall and middle lamella

with a few vascular bundles. Thick walls, in the lon-

gitudinal section, give rigidity to the cotyledon. The

secondary walls, found only in mature parenchyma

cells, are very thick and contain pits that facilitate the

diffusion of water during soaking. Within each par-

enchyma cell, starch granules are embedded within a

protein matrix; between adjacent cells, the middle

lamella, composed mainly of pectic substances, adds

potential rigidity to the tissues.

Comparative Chemical Composition

Carbohydrates

0008The total carbohydrates of legumes range from

24.0%, on a dry-weight basis (dwb) in winged beans

to 68% in cowpeas. Oligosaccharides of the raffinose

family (raffinose, stachyose, verbascose, and ajugose)

tbl0001 Table 1 Important food legumes with their scientific and common names

Scientific name Common name

Arachis hypogea L. Arachide, groudnut, peanut, earthnut, goober pea, Philippine pink, mani

Cajanus cajan L. Millsp. Pigeon pea, Congo pea, gandul, guandu, red gram, Angola pea, yellow dhal, catjang pea

Cicer arietinum L. Chickpea, gram pea, Egyptian pea, pois chiche, Bengal gram, gram, chana, garbanzo,

alter, shibu

Cyamopsis tetragonolaba L. Guar gum

Dolichos uniflorus Horse gram, horse grain, Madras gram, kallu

Glycine max (L.) Merr. Soybean, soya bean, soya, haba soya, preta

Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Hyacinth bean, Egyptian bean, val

Lathyrus sativus L. Khesari, chickling vetch, grasspea

Lens culinaris Medik Lentil, masur

Lupinus albus L. White lupine

Lupinus angustifolius L. Blue lupine, New Zealand blue lupine

Lupinus luteus L. European yellow lupine

Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. Horse gram, Madras gram, kulthi

Phaseolus lunatus L. Lima bean, butter bean

Phaseolus vulgaris L. Common bean (field bean, haricot, pinto, navy, kidney, dry bean), garden bean,

frijol, caraota, poroto

Pisum arvense sativum L. Pea, pois, arveja, Alaska pea, common or garden pea, dry peas, guisante, muttar

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC Winged bean, Goa bean, four-angled bean, Manila bean, princess bean

Vicia faba L. Broad bean, faba bean, horse bean

Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal Moth bean, mat bean

Vigna angularis Wild Adzuki bean

Vigna aureus Green gram, golden gram, mung bean, Oregon pea, chickasano pea, mungbean

Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper Urd, black gram

Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek Green gram, golden gram, mung bean

Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi and Ohashi Rice bean, mambi bean

Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. ssp. Unguiculata Cowpea, black-eyed pea, crowder pea

Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouars Bambarra groundnut

LEGUMES/Legumes in the Diet 3521

account for 31.1–76.0% (dwb) of the total sugars.

Starch makes up a larger portion, ranging from 24%

to 56% (dwb) of total carbohydrate. These variations

in reported starch contents result in part from differ-

ences in cultivars and analytical procedures. The

physiocochemical properties and internal molecular

structures of bean starch differ depending on

the original source, maturation, and environmental

factors. The majority of legume starches have mo-

lecular weights higher than 2  10

, and over 90%

of them have molecular weights about 4  10

.(See

Carbohydrates: Classification and Properties.)

0009 The amount of amylose, ranging from 10% to

66%, may influence starch solubility, lipid binding,

and other functional properties. The variability

between amyloses from different legumes may be

the result of: (1) maturity of seed; (2) genetic control

of amylose synthesis; (3) cultivar differences; and/or

(4) seed storage history. A degree of amylose polymer-

ization may confer structural stability on the granule

but may also be partially responsible for its resistance

toward in vitro a-amylolysis.

0010Most legume starches have gelatinization tempera-

tures of 60–90



C and are characterized by no dis-

tinctive pasting peak, but rather a very high viscosity

which remains constant or increases during cooling.

The restricted and single-stage swelling patterns of

legume starches are explained by the crystalline and

tbl0002 Table 2 Worldproductionofimportantfoodlegumes

YearWorldproduction(Mt)Production(Mt)

DevelopingcountriesDevelopedcountries

Soybeans19961302062976122982868976469

19971444119976602315278388845

19981599545997971813780236462

19991568124137904493777767476

20001610421268044524280596884

Groundnuts(inshell)199631231836292314422000394

199729416106275321941883912

199834029781320052542024527

199931928137299083382019799

200034522077327420081780069

Beans,dry199616451242142614632189779

199716989109145912742397835

199816740216143326552407561

199919069325164627442606581

200018825653165047382320915

Peas,dry19961084166223279988513664

19971204057122397869800785

19981217235723125139859844

19991110554822815978823951

20001092825621800178748239

Chickpeas199680062067604771401435

199782545627943335311227

199887699398471886298053

199993266768897155429521

200088015908339013462577

Broadbeans,dry199635010803090063411017

199732157122789143426569

199836044673156529447938

199933006852810239490446

200031834272719268464159

Cowpeas,dry19962583941252859055351

19972551747250144750300

19983328615327641552200

19993273714322386449850

20003303590325374049850

Pulses,total1996530710523782783315243219

1997 55 153 122 38 411 608 16 741 514

1998 55 924 233 39 080 996 16 843 237

1999 58 114 070 41 789 204 16 324 866

2000 55 738 452 40 065 145 15 673 307

DataadaptedfromFAO(1996–2000).(http://apps.fao.org/page/form?collection¼Production. Crops. Primary&Domain¼Production&servlet¼

1&language ¼EN&hostname ¼apps.fao.org&version ¼default)

3522 LEGUMES/Legumes in the Diet