Dignas B., Winter E. Rome and Persia in late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals

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37 Mutual cultural interest 263

comments do an injustice to

ur I and other rulers, who primarily sought

to use the specialised knowledge of Western workers for the beneﬁt of their

own empire.

37: Mutual cultural interest

Apart from the rather pragmatic motive to secure Western know-how, sev-

eral Sasanian kings showed a ‘philosophical’ interest in Western civilisation

and culture. Western and Eastern sources agree that in particular Xusr

IAn

sarv

an (531–79), whose added title means ‘the wise king’, continu-

ously strove to familiarise himself with foreign cultures. Agathias elaborately

describes the king’s passion for Western literature and philosophy.

Agathias

.28.1–2

(1) After saying a few words about Xusr

o (I) I shall immediately return to my

previous topic. For he is praised and admired excessively not only by the Persians

but also by some Romans as a lover of literature and an expert on our philosophy

because someone supposedly translated the Greek authors into Persian for him.

(2) It is even claimed that he devoured the whole Aristotle

more thoroughly than

Demosthenes

devoured Thucydides

and that he was full of the doctrines of

Plato, the son of Ariston, that neither the Timaeus (although it bursts with scholarly

theory and presents innumerous scientiﬁc speculations) was too demanding for

him, nor the Phaedo or the Gorgias, nor any other subtle and complex dialogue,

such as, for example, the Parmenides.

Although the author tries to be speciﬁc in his claim that Xusr

o was admired

unduly – he seems to doubt that the king actually knew the works of Aris-

totle or Plato well

– his words express a fundamentally critical attitude

towards Eastern culture and the ‘barbarians’ rather than precise knowledge

about Xusr

o’s activities.

In any case, the king’s eagerness to get to know

the works of the Greek philosophers is a remarkable testimony to his tol-

erance and open-mindedness as well as his desire to learn and make use

of new things.

It is also noteworthy that – according to Agathias – the

Sasanian ruler was praised not only in the East but also in the West; fur-

ther on the author tells us that Xusr

o welcomed numerous Western pagan

Literally ‘the one from Stagira’, Aristotle’s birth place.

Literally ‘the orator from the demos Paeania’.

Literally ‘the son of Olorus’.

Wieseh

ofer 2001: 216–17 attributes the sceptical attitude of the Byzantine historian to his excessive

patriotism.

On these prejudices see Cameron 1969–70: 172–6 and Duneau 1966: 13–22; Pugliese-Caratelli 1971:

597–604.

On Xusr

o’s attempts to write medical works see Sezgin 1970: 186; for further references see Shahbazi

1990: 293; in general on the efforts of late Sasanian kings to acquire knowledge on foreign cultures

see Wieseh

ofer 2001: 216–21; on philosophy in particular see Walker 2002: 45–9.

264 9 Exchange of information between West and East

philosophers

exiled after 529 when Justinian (527–65) had closed the

Academy in Athens, the last institution of pagan erudition.

One of these,

Priscianus, wrote a treatise entitled ‘Answers by the philosopher Priscianus

to the questions posed by the Persian king Xusr

o’ (Prisciani philosophi

solutiones eorum de quibus dubitavit Chosroes Persarum rex).

When the

Neo-Platonists were disappointed by their experience in Persia and wished

to return the king actually supported them by negotiating an amnesty for

them in the ‘eternal peace’ of 532.

Eastern sources conﬁrm Xusr

o’s exceptional desire for erudition as well

as his open-mindedness and tolerance. The king himself composed a book

of his exploits which has survived in the works of the Persian author Ibn

Miskawayh, who died in the year 1043. This author’s universal history was

written in Arabic and among other topics covers the history of Persia from

its beginnings to the end of the Sasanian Empire. In a manner that was

characteristic for his time, Ibn Miskawayh attributes much signiﬁcance

to the Persian monarchy during the Sasanian period. He wrote during a

period that saw a Persian reaction to the Arab supremacy and the beginnings

of modern Persian ‘national literature’.

The author points out that his

account followed Xusr

o’s own book, which the king had written about his

conquests and the way he ruled his empire.

The Book of Deeds of Xusr

oIAn

sarv

an; Ibn Miskawayh, Ta

arib al-umam,

p. 206, l.2–p.207, l. 7

When we had ﬁnished studying the lives of our ancestors . . . we turned to the

lives of the Romans and the people from India, and we took from these what was

laudable, using our intellect to select (as a standard for this) and choosing according

to our discrimination (distinguishing with our cleverness). And we picked out from

all of it that which embellishes our rulers turning it into a guide for exemplary

behaviour and custom. (While doing so) our souls were not at variance with us

about what our passions favour.

(Then) we told them about it and informed them of it and wrote to them of what

we disliked of their behaviour and declared these things forbidden suggesting alter-

natives. We have not disliked anyone because they belonged to a different religion

or a different religious community. We have not been selﬁsh with (the knowledge)

we received, yet we have also not disdained to learn what (knowledge) they possess.

For acknowledging the learning of truth and knowledge and pursuing it are the

most signiﬁcant embellishments for a king, while their scorning of learning and

Agath. ii.30.3.

On the Greek philosophers’ ﬂight to the court of Xusr

o I see Sch

ofﬂer 1979: 37–41; see also Hartmann

2002a: 123–60; 2002b: 59–86.

Altheim and Stiehl 1954: 22–6.

Agath. ii.31.1–4.

Caetani 1909: xii–xiii.

Grignaschi 1966: 17.

37 Mutual cultural interest 265

hiding from the search for knowledge causes them the greatest harm. For whoever

does not learn has no insight. When I had examined what these two peoples pos-

sessed of governmental and political cleverness and when I had combined the noble

deeds of my ancestors with what I gathered through my own reasoning, what I had

myself found out, and what I received from the kings who do not belong to us, I

established the work from which follow success and goodness. I dismissed the other

nations, for I found no insight, nor intelligence, nor cleverness in them but rather I

found them to possess injustice, envy, deception, greed, avarice, maladministration,

ignorance, (a tendency to) break agreements, and little reward. No government

can prosper on the basis of these things, nor do they generate prosperity.

The passage attests to Xusr

o’s efforts in gaining all sorts of knowledge

about different cultures. This aspect of Sasanian kingship, which had been

ignored for a long time, has received its deserved attention by more recent

scholars.

100

Admittedly, Xusr

o I tries to appear in the best light,

101

but

his intellectual curiosity and his willingness to learn from foreign peoples

and to appreciate other cultures are as obvious as his tolerance with regard

to persons of a different faith. Numerous further testimonies conﬁrm the

extent to which the king engaged in the study of philosophy and literature,

theology, statecraft, law and medicine.

102

Both he and Xusr

oIIParv

ez (602–

28) were largely responsible for the fact that Sasanian culture ﬂourished

during the late phase of the Empire.

103

F. Altheim and R. Stiehl give an

accurate assessment by calling late Sasanian Iran a centre for the exchange

of both religions and ideologies.

104

Our study of the relations between Rome and Iran from the third to the

seventh century has shown the following. Reducing the Sasanian–Roman

confrontations to episodes of war and ignoring the role the East played in

establishing close relations is inappropriate. This holds true although the

Eastern power seems to have been more willing to receive Western ideas

than vice versa. Both empires made intensive use of the many different ways

in which they could exercise inﬂuence on the other. This inﬂuence was felt

in all aspects of life, political, diplomatic, economic and cultural. As the

Byzantine author and diplomat Peter the Patrician put it, ‘It is obvious

for all mankind that the Roman and the Persian Empires are just like two

lamps; and it is necessary that, like eyes, the one is brightened by the light of

the other and that they do not angrily strive for each other’s destruction.’

105

Unfortunately, the hopes articulated in these words were not fulﬁlled.

100

Garso

ıan 1983: 586–92 and Shahbazi 1990: 592.

101

On the clear ‘self-praise’ of the king see also Wieseh

ofer 2001: 217.

102

Cf. the references in ibid.

103

On late Sasanian culture see Wieseh

ofer 2001: 216–21.

104

Altheim and Stiehl 1957: 275.

105

Petrus Patricius, frg. 13; see 17.

appendix 1

Lists of Sasanian Kings and Roman emperors

sasanian kings roman emperors

Arda

ır I 224–239/40; Alexander Severus 222–235

died 241/42

Maximinus Thrax 235–238

Gordian I 238

Gordian II 238

Pupienus 238

Balbinus 238

ur I 239/40 Gordian III 238–244

[241/42?]– Philip the Arab 244–249

270/72 Decius 249–251

Trebonianus Gallus 251–253

Aemilianus 253

Valerian 253–260

Gallienus 253–268

Claudius II 268–270

Quintillus 270

Hormizd I 270/72–273 Aurelian 270–275

Bahr

am I 273–276

Tacitus 275–276

Bahr

am II 276–293 Florianus 276

Probus 276–282

Carus 282–283

Numerian 283–284

Carinus 283–285

Diocletian 284–286

western empire eastern empire

Bahr

am III 293 Maximian 286–305 Diocletian 286–305

Nars

e 293–302

Hormizd II 302–309

Constantius I 305–306 Galerius 305–311

Adarnars

e 309 Severus 306–307

Maxentius 306–312

Maximian 307–308 Licinius 308–324

Constantine I 306–337 Maximinus Daia 309–313

266

Appendix 1 267

re-united empire

ur II 309–379

Constantine II 337–340

Constans 337–350

Constantius II 337–361

Julian 361–363

Jovian 363–364

eastern empire

Valens 364–378

Arda

ır II 379–383 Theodosius I 379–395

ur III 383–388

Bahr

am IV 388–399

Arcadius 395–408

Yazdgard I 399–420

Theodosius II 408–450

Bahr

am V G

or 420–439

Yazdgard II 439–457

Marcian 450–457

Hormizd III 457–459 Leo I 457–474

oz I 459–484

Leo II 474

Zeno 474–5/476–91

Basiliscus 475–476

Bal

s 484–488

Kav

adh I 488–497/499–531 Anastasius I 491–518

asp 497–499 Justin I 518–527

Xusr

oI 531–579 Justinian I 527–565

sarv

an Justin II 565–578

Hormizd IV 579–590 Tiberius II 578–582

Maurice 582–602

Bahr

am VI 590–591

ın

Xusr

oII

590–628

Parv

ez Phocas 602–610

Heraclius 610–641

Bist

am 591–595

Kav

adh II 628

Arda

ır III 628–630

ahrbar

az 630

Xusr

oIII 630

an 630–631

Azarm

eduxt 631

Hormizd I 631–632

Xusr

o IV reign uncertain

oz II reign uncertain

Xusr

o V reign uncertain

Yazdgard III 633–651

appendix 2

Chronological table

224 The Sasanian Empire is founded

c. 226/227 Arda

ır I attacks Hatra

230–232 Arda

ır I invades Roman territory

232/233 Severus Alexander responds with counter-attacks

235/236 (?) Arda

ır I conquers Nisibis and Carrhae

240/241 The Sasanians conquer Hatra

242–244 Gordian III marches against Persia

243 Nisibis and Carrhae are reconquered; the Romans are

victorious at Rhesaina and advance into the Sasanian

province of

ure

244

ur I defeats Gordian III at Mi

ık and concludes

peace with Philip the Arab

252

ur I conquers Armenia

253

ur I advances into Mesopotamia and Syria; the

Sasanians are victorious at Barbalissos

253 The Palmyrene prince Odaenathus scores ﬁrst suc-

cesses against the Sasanians

253/4 or 255–257 The Sasanians advance into Cappadocia

256

ur I rejects Odaenathus’ offer of alliance; rap-

prochement between Rome and the Palmyrene

prince

260

ur I is victorious at Edessa; Valerian is cap-

tured; the Sasanians advance into Cilicia, Cappado-

cia, Lycaonia; a large number of inhabitants of

the Roman Empire are deported into the Sasanian

Empire

260 Odaenathus counter-attacks the Sasanians

262–264 Odaenathus defeats the Sasanians several times and

advances to Kt

esiph

on twice (262; 264?)

268

Chronological table 269

267 Odaenathus is assassinated

267–272 Zenobia rules in Palmyra; the ‘Palmyrene Empire’ is

founded (from 271/272)

272 Aurelian destroys Palmyra

276–293 The Zoroastrian priest Kart

er is at the height of his

power under Bahr

am II; upon Kart

er’s initiative Mani

is imprisoned (277)

279 The emperor Probus receives the title Persicus maximus

283 Carus attacks Persia and advances to Kt

esiph

From 286 Diocletian introduces measures to protect the Roman

eastern frontier

288 Diocletian and Bahr

am II conclude peace

290 (?) Diocletian installs Tiridates III as Armenian king

295 (?) Diocletian adopts the title Persicus maximus

296 Sasanian–Roman confrontations resume; Nars

e invades

Armenia

297 Diocletian issues an edict against the Manichaeans;

Galerius is defeated in Mesopotamia

298 The Romans are victorious against Nars

e in Armenia at

Satala; peace of Nisibis entails considerable advantages

for the Romans

before 309 Hormizd II attacks the Romans without any success

312 Maximinus Daea ﬁghts a war in Armenia

328 The Arab prince Imru’ulqais dies

22 May 337 Constantine the Great dies in the middle of prepara-

tions for a Persian war

338

ur II resumes hostilities with Rome and conquers

Armenia

From 339/340 Christians are persecuted in the Persian Empire under

ur II

350

ur II is unsuccessful in capturing Nisibis after besieg-

ing the city twice

359

ur II captures Amida and Singara

363 Julian attacks Persia; military catastrophe and the

emperor’s death; Julian’s successor Jovian concludes a

disadvantageous foedus with

ur II

367

ur II has the Armenian king Arsaces assassinated

371

ur II attacks Armenia

377 Romans and Sasanians divide Armenia between

them

270 Appendix 2

387 (?) A treaty conﬁrms the partition of Armenia

408 Arcadius asks Yazdgard I to become guardian of his son

Theodosius

408/409 Byzantium and the Sasanian Empire conclude a trade agree-

ment

410 Synod of Seleucia-Kt

esiph

on; Yazdgard I allows the Chris-

tians to practise their religion in the Sasanian Empire

420 Persecutions of the Christians resume in the Sasanian

Empire

421 Byzantine–Sasanian war

422 Bahr

amVG

or and Theodosius II conclude peace

439–442 Byzantine–Sasanian war; Leo I refuses to make monetary

contributions for the protection of the Caucasus passes;

Yazdgard II advances into Roman territory

443–450 Yazdgard II suffers defeats against the Hephthalites in the

East

465 Leo receives a Sasanian embassy complaining that the

Zoroastrian Magians were impeded in practising their rites

in Cappadocia

After 474 During the ﬁrst half of his reign the emperor Zeno makes

subsidiary payments to P

oz I towards the fortresses in the

Caucasus; payments cease after P

oz I’s death in 484

484 Synod of B

et L

at; the Christians in the Sasanian Empire

follow the Nestorian doctrine

484 P

oz I dies in battle against the Hephthalites

From 494 Mazdakite movement and long lasting turmoil in the

Sasanian Empire

502–532 First Sasanian–Byzantine war in the sixth century; Kav

adh

I starts the war when Anastasius I refuses to support him

ﬁnancially against the Hephthalites

503 The Sasanians conquer Amida

506 Peace is concluded

522 Kav

adh I asks Justin to adopt his son Xusr

o in order to

secure his son’s succession

526 Military confrontations resume

529 Numerous pagan philosophers seek refuge at the court of

Xusr

o I in Kt

esiph

on when the academy in Athens is closed

by Justinian; Justinian installs the Ghassanid al-H

arit V

ibn

Gabala (Arethas) as the leader of many Arab tribes; he

thereby sets up a counter weight to the Lahmids ﬁghting

on behalf of the Sasanians

Chronological table 271

532 ‘Eternal peace’ is concluded

538 Ambassadors of the Gothic king Wittiges appeal to Xusr

IinKt

esiph

on and try to persuade him to go to war against

Byzantium

540–562 Second Sasanian–Byzantine war in the sixth century, trig-

gered by invasions of the Lahmid Alamoundaros into

Roman territory

540 Xusr

o I conquers Antioch; the inhabitants of the Syrian

metropolis are deported to the Sasanian Empire and reset-

tled in the new foundation V

eh-Antiok-Xusr

544 The Sasanians fail at their attempt to conquer Christian

Edessa

545 Both sides agree on an armistice

549 Fighting continues

551 A ﬁve-year armistice is concluded, which does not include

Lazika

552 Justinian tries to introduce the breeding of silk worms

in Byzantium in order to gain independence from the

Sasanian intermediate trade

556/557 Peace negotiations take place and a general armistice is

concluded

562 Justinian and Xusr

oIAn

sarv

an conclude a foedus

From 568 Romans and Turks enter diplomatic relations

570 The Sasanians advance into the Yemen

572–590 Third Sasanian–Byzantine war in the sixth century

588/589 The end of the reign of Hormizd IV sees confrontations

with the Turks along the Eastern Sasanian frontier

590/591 Maurice intervenes in rivalries over the Sasanian throne;

Xusr

oIIP

arv

ez prevails against the rebel Bahr

am VI

ın

602 Xusr

o II has the last Lahmid ruler Num

an III assassi-

nated; Xusr

o II’s ‘benefactor’ Maurice is overthrown by

Phocas; the Sasanian king begins war against the Romans

and advances into Armenia and Cappadocia

604

Several Arab tribes unite and destroy a Sasanian army at

c. 605 The Sasanians conquer the important border cities Amida,

Rhesaina, Kallinikos and Kirkesion; the Romans lose all of

Mesopotamia

c. 608–610 The Sasanians advance into Asia Minor

272 Appendix 2

611 Syrian Antioch is conquered

613 Tarsus and Damascus are conquered

614 Jerusalem falls and the Holy Cross is taken to Kt

esiph

615 The Sasanians capture Chalcedon; Roman attempts at rec-

onciliation with the Sasanians fail

619 The Sasanians conquer Egypt

622 Heraclius embarks on a Roman counter offensive

623 The Romans free Asia Minor from Sasanian control

626 The Sasanians and Avars attack Constantinople but fail

627 The Sasanians are defeated at Niniveh

628 Kav

adh II

e and Heraclius conclude peace

628/629 The Sasanians return their conquests in Armenia,

Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt to the Romans

630 The Holy Cross is restored to Jerusalem

636 The Arabs defeat the Romans at the Yarm

uk river; in the

following period the important Roman Eastern provinces are

lost

636 The Arabs defeat the Sasanians at Q

ıs

ıya

642 The Arabs defeat the Sasanians at Nih

avand

651 Yazdgard III, the last Sasanian king, is assassinated