Dignas B., Winter E. Rome and Persia in late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals

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appendix 3

Glossary

amicitia

The Latin term amicitia describes various personal or political aspects of

friendship, i.e. it is used in the context of relations between individuals as

well as states. Outside Rome amicitia can point to a treaty or to friendly

relations between two states that existed without an ofﬁcial foedus. Amici-

tia required bilateral consent. In general, the declaration of amicitia was

motivated by the desire for a reconciliation of interests.

breviarium

Breviaria were short histories written in a continuous narrative, in contrast

to a ‘chronicle’, which was in general a list-type record of events and dates

in chronological order. Breviaria intended to both entertain and teach.

They primarily served to provide uneducated new elites with a necessary

historical and cultural knowledge. This genre became particularly popular

during the fourth century ad.

catafractarii

This was the mailed cavalry that the Romans faced for the ﬁrst time in

190 bc when they fought the Seleucid king Antiochus III. The catafractarii

contributed signiﬁcantly to Crassus’ defeat at Carrhae against the Parthians

in 53 bc. The impact of this unit was also responsible for the military strength

of the Sasanians in the third and fourth centuries ad. The catafractarii were

armed with a heavy lance and attacked their enemies’ lines frontally in a

single body.

Christological controversies

After Constantine the Great had become a supporter of Christianity deep

theological confrontations emerged within the Roman Empire. During the

time of bishop Alexander I of Alexandria (312–28) the main dispute was

273

274 Appendix 3

over Arianism. According to Arius, a cleric from Antioch, Christ was not

truly divine. In contrast, Alexandrian theologians announced that God the

Father and Jesus were of one substance. The controversy escalated, and

Constantine the Great, concerned about the unity of the empire, convened

the Council of Nicaea (325), which condemned Arius and prescribed the

Alexandrian doctrine. The Council of Constantinople (381) conﬁrmed this

conclusion and ended the dispute, which was labelled ‘Trinitarian’ accord-

ing to the three natures of the divine. Shortly after, the controversy ﬂared

up again, this time with much greater consequences. It revolved around

the nature of Christ, the relationship between the human and the divine in

Christ. The patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius, refused to call the Vir-

gin Mary ‘the bearer of God’ (theotokos) and clearly distinguished between

two natures in Christ (so called extreme dyophysitism). In contrast, the

patriarch of Alexandria, Cyril I (412–44), proclaimed that Christ was of

one nature and that in him god and man had become one (monophysitism).

Another Council took place at Ephesus in 431 and condemned Nestorius as

a heretic. Under Dioscurus (444–54) the power of the patriarch of Alexan-

dria appeared to be at its zenith. However, new Christological controversies

erupted. The archimandrite Eutyches, an adherent of the Alexandrian doc-

trine at Constantinople, took Cyril’s doctrine a step further and argued that

after his incarnation the two natures of Christ became one divine nature.

At the so-called Robber Synod of Ephesus (449) Dioscurus was once more

able to promote monophysitism successfully. Under the emperor Marcian

(450–7), however, a different religious policy began. The Council of Chal-

cedon (451) brought about a famous and ﬁnal decision on the Christological

dispute, by way of deﬁning Christ as both god and man, two natures that

were inconvertible but also inseparable (so called moderate dyophysitism).

This formula repudiated both Nestorianism and monophysitism. All later

attempts to integrate the positions failed.

clibanarii

Very similar to the catafractarii, these mailed cavalry units were additionally

protected by a cuirass made of small plates that covered the whole body.

They are attested from the third century ad onwards.

comes

In late antiquity this was the rank of leading ofﬁcials employed at the impe-

rial court and in the provinces, in both the civil and military administration

of the Roman Empire. The comes commerciorum was responsible for the

Glossary 275

trade in the border provinces, the comes foederatorum for the supervision

of the allied non-Roman units, who were mostly commanded by generals

appointed from their own tribes and peoples. The comes (sacrarum) largi-

tionum, who was a court ofﬁcial, was in charge of the imperial ﬁnances;

among other things he supervised the collection of taxes and customs duties,

controlled all mints and the yields of the mines and was responsible for the

budgets of civil and military service. The titles and exact duties of the

individual comites varied considerably in the course of late antiquity.

Constantinian revolution

This is an expression coined by modern scholarship to express the new

relationship between the Roman state and Christianity after the reign of

Constantine the Great (306–37), when the persecutions of the Christians

were ﬁnally abandoned. Constantine’s conversion to the Christian faith

and the fact that pagan cults were increasingly undermined in state and

society certainly entailed tremendous historical consequences. At the end

of the fourth century Theodosius the Great declared Christianity as the

only orthodox religion in the Roman Empire.

dux

Aside from the general meaning ‘leader’, in particular the leader of an

army or a military unit, from the third century ad onwards the term also

described a military rank. When Diocletian reorganised the administration

of the Roman Empire he separated civil and military functions. From then

on, the dux was in charge of the troops positioned in the border provinces.

He was essentially the military ofﬁcial responsible for the protection of the

frontiers.

foedus

Originally, the term foedus described an obligation under oath and therefore

pertained to religious law. Later, this formal aspect gave way to the emphasis

on a ‘treaty’ or ‘alliance’. Increasingly, the term deﬁned an ofﬁcial treaty

between states. By concluding such a formal treaty, a foedus, the armed

confrontations between rivalling powers were ended and precise terms of

peace established. A foedus aequum was based on the equal status of both

empires. In the case of a foedus iniquum one empire had to acknowledge

the rule of the other. Prior to the conclusion of a foedus ambassadors had

to be exchanged. The terms of the treaty were written down and came into

effect only when the two sides had formally signed them.

276 Appendix 3

imperium maius

This is the power status of a military command that superseded the author-

ity of other ofﬁcials in their sphere of command.

Incense route

This is the name of one of the most famous caravan routes in antiquity.

It commenced in southern Arabia and ran along the western coast of the

Arabian peninsula to the commercial centres in north-west Arabia (Petra,

Bostra). Via this trade route Arabia’s luxury goods were transported to the

Roman East, among other things the much desired frankincense.

Istakhr

The town was a religious centre of the Sasanians in the Persis. During

the Sasanian period it was as signiﬁcant as Persepolis had been during the

Achaemenid period. After the Islamic conquest of the Sasanian Empire

Istachr was destroyed.

ius Italicum

By being granted the ius Italicum communities outside Italy gained a priv-

ileged legal status. This entailed autonomous administration and indepen-

dence from the provincial governors, but most importantly ﬁscal privileges

and a special legal treatment of landed property in the area, which proba-

bly enjoyed tax exemption as a rule. However, we do not know the precise

content and details of this privilege.

This was the name of a dynasty of central Asia that ﬂourished particularly

during the ﬁrst centuries bc and ad, when it united parts of central Asia,

Iran, Afghanistan and India to form an important empire. During the

Arsacid period these so-called ‘Indoscythians’ were powerful opponents of

the Parthians. At the time of the rise of the Sasanian dynasty the power of

the K

an, who were a possible threat at the north-eastern borders of the

Sasanian Empire, was already waning.

Lazi

This culture of Scythian origin inhabited Colchis, a region situated along

the south-eastern shore of the Black Sea, bordering Armenia and the Cau-

casus. The Lazi gained historical signiﬁcance only in late antiquity, when

they took over power from the ancient Colchians. They were a vassal state

of Rome and subject to Sasanian inﬂuence only between 470 and 522.

Glossary 277

Magians (magoi)

According to Herodotus, the magoi were a Median tribe. The Greeks also

perceived them as a priestly caste, who were particularly knowledgeable

with regard to the interpretation of dreams, as well as astrology and magic,

and who served ﬁrst the Median kings and later the Achaemenid rulers. In

the Sasanian period the Magians were the most important religious ofﬁcials

within the Zoroastrian religious community.

magister

This was the rank of a variety of Roman ofﬁcials who, especially in late

antiquity, could be extremely powerful. The ofﬁcials were always masters of

one particular ﬁeld of activity. The magister equitum was thus commander of

the cavalry, and the magister ofﬁciorum presided over the ofﬁces, i.e. he was

the head of the civil administration of the empire. The magister militum per

Orientem was responsible for the troops stationed on the Eastern frontier,

which included the recruitment of and jurisdiction over these; in contrast,

the magister militum praesentalis commanded the soldiers stationed in the

capital and therefore performed his duties in the immediate environment

of the emperor.

Mani/Manichaeism

Mani (216–77) was the founder of the Persian religion that was named

Manichaeism after him. Already as a child Mani was inspired by visions

in which the right faith was communicated to him. He claimed to be the

last prophet and saviour of mankind. Although Mani acknowledged that

Zarathustra, Buddha and Jesus had preached the truth in earlier times, he

wanted to correct the mistakes made by other religions since and to preserve

the good aspects of these religions. As it incorporated Iranian, Babylonian,

Indian and Christian elements, Manichaeism was a syncretistic religion,

a factor that must have contributed to its popularity. It was comparable

to the other great world religions in that it offered salvation and answers

regarding fundamental questions about the origin of the world, the soul,

the body and the character of evil. Mani took care that his doctrines were

written down in order that they were not modiﬁed by later transmission.

Manichaeism was therefore clearly a book religion. During the reign of

urI(240–72) Mani was free to travel and preach his religion, which

spread quickly throughout the Sasanian Empire. After the death of

ur,

however, the Zoroastrian priests, who did not tolerate any other religion

besides their own, urged the new king to imprison Mani. In the following

278 Appendix 3

period the Manichaeans were persecuted in the Sasanian Empire and many

of them sought refuge in both the West and the East.

Medes

Originally the Medes were an Iranian people of horsemen who migrated to

the Iranian mountain regions at the beginning of the ﬁrst millennium bc

and who from the eighth century bc onwards became very signiﬁcant. In

alliance with the Babylonians the Medes overthrew the powerful Assyrian

Empire and extended their rule into Asia Minor to the river Halys (590–

585). Around 550 bc the Persian Cyrus revolted against the Median king

Astyages. The Persians became the successors of Median rule and were often

incorrectly called ‘Medes’ by the Greeks.

Monophysitism

see Christological controversies

Nabataeans

The Nabataeans were a people in northern Arabia who became signiﬁcant

from the fourth century bc onwards. Their confrontations with the rivalling

successors of Alexander the Great brought them in contact with the Greek

world. Petra, the capital of the Nabataean Empire, was a major centre of the

ﬂourishing caravan trade along the Incense Route. The Nabataean Empire

reached its greatest extension around 100 bc. From the middle of the ﬁrst

century bc it became dependent on Rome. Upon the instigation of the

emperor Trajan in ad 106 it was integrated into the Roman Empire and

became the province of Arabia, of which the new capital was Bostra.

Nestorians

see Christological controversies

Persis

This was the region in south-eastern Iran that became the political centre

of the Achaemenid Empire and a centre of Iranism. After the conquest of

Alexander the Great the impact of ‘Hellenism’ did not affect this area much

so that the ‘Iranian spirit’ could develop further. Important places in the

Persis were Persepolis, Pasargadai, Istachr and Naq

s-i Rustam.

phylarchos

The Greek title was used for holders of both magisterial and military ofﬁces.

In late antiquity the chiefs of Arabian tribes were often called phylarchs.

Already Cicero used the term with this speciﬁc meaning.

Glossary 279

Praetorian prefect

The ofﬁce was created by Augustus. A praefectus praetorio was appointed

from members of the equestrian rank and in charge of the praetorian

cohorts, the elite troops of the emperor in Rome. Gradually his military

duties were extended to include civil functions, and the number of ofﬁce

holders varied between one and three. Constantine the Great reorganised

the ofﬁce by assigning exclusively civil functions to the praetorian prefect.

He became the most important imperial administrator, who commanded

the large administrative districts of the empire, the praefecturae (Gallia,

Italia, Illyricum, Oriens), which were in turn divided into dioceses. In

late antiquity the praetorian prefect was one of the highest ofﬁcials in the

Roman Empire.

Saracens/Sarakenoi

Authors of the ﬁrst three centuries ad use the name Sarakenoi for a nomadic

Arab tribe from the Sinai desert, which was in close contact with the Roman

governor of the province of Arabia. In late antiquity and during the Middle

Ages Christian authors in particular used the term for all Arabs, later for

the Muslims, to some extent for all non-Christians.

Satrap

This is the title of Achaemenid, later also Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian

provincial governors. Within their satrapies, the geographical regions

assigned to the satraps, they were responsible for the collection of tribute;

in times of war they were the military commanders of the troops within

their sphere of inﬂuence. They also held diplomatic as well as judicial pow-

ers. Because of the concentration of power within the hands of individual

satraps the central power of the Great king was frequently challenged by

individual satraps.

Scyths

Peoples who were perceived as dangerous equestrian tribes inhabiting areas

along the Black Sea, the Don and the Dnieper rivers to the lower Danube,

were collectively referred to as ‘Scyths’ by ancient sources. The Greek histo-

rian Herodotus describes their society and customs at length in the fourth

book of his Histories. In the seventh and sixth centuries bc they entertained

close trade relations with the Greek colonies along the Black Sea coast.

Some of these tribes settled in these regions whereas others at times moved

deep into Western Asia. Among the most famous Scythian tribes are the

Sakai, who inhabited the region east of the Caspian Sea. Later, the name

280 Appendix 3

‘Scyths’ was used for tribes of the Iranian Sarmatae and the nomadic tribes

who lived around the Black Sea.

Silk Road

The Silk Road or Silk Route was a famous ancient trading route, which

was used for trading many desired luxury goods such as silk, pottery,

mirrors and pigments but also facilitated the exchange between differ-

ent religions and cultures. The Silk Road extended from China across the

oases of the Tarim River valley to the West. It went through Samarkhand,

Merv, Ekbatana (Hamadan) into Mesopotamia, from there it continued

to Syria, via Palmyra to Antioch on the Orontes or Tyrus to the Eastern

Mediterranean.

solidus

Because of the increase in the price of gold Constantine replaced the pre-

vious gold denomination, the aureus, with this slightly lighter gold coin,

which during the course of late antiquity became the main Roman denom-

ination. The solidus weighed 1/72 of a Roman pound of gold.

tabularius

In the Roman Empire a tabularius was responsible for dispatching and

delivering letters or other written communications. He could be commis-

sioned by private individuals or by public institutions. Because of their large

numbers, imperial messengers (tabularii Augusti) were organised according

to the example of the military and belonged to the respective ﬁelds of impe-

rial administration. When they dispatched particularly important ofﬁcial

communications they were allowed to use the cursus publicus, the imperial

mail system.

Tetrarchy

The modern term tetrarchy refers to the simultaneous rule of four emperors,

two Augusti and two Caesars, with the latter of lower status than the former.

This system was introduced by Diocletian in ad 293. Each of the four

tetrarchs was in charge of one of four geographic areas within the Empire.

By way of adoption all four tetrarchs were closely related. The reigns of

each were carefully ﬁxed beforehand in order to secure and determine

succession. Although this system was abandoned in favour of dynastic rule

after Constantine had defeated Licinius in 324, the model of ‘multiple rule’

clearly inﬂuenced the character of imperial government in late antiquity.

Glossary 281

Vassal kings

In Iran these were individual local princes who tried to retain their indepen-

dence from the central power, the King of kings. In the Parthian Empire the

claim for power of the vassal kings led to the disintegration of the empire

and contributed signiﬁcantly to the fall of Arsacid rule.

Zarathustra/Zoroaster – Zarathustrianism/Zoroastrianism

Zoroaster is the Greek form of the old Iranian male name Zarathustra. The

Iranian religion of Zarathustrianism/Zoroastrianism was named after this

religious founder or prophet. His date is as controversial as his origins. The

prevalent view is that he lived around 1000 bc in central Asia/Eastern Iran.

However, both a much earlier date (c. 1200 bc) and a much later lifetime

in the seventh or sixth century bc, which would correspond to the ancient

tradition, have been suggested.

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