Environmental Encyclopedia

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Environmental Encyclopedia 3

River blindness

conservative risk estimates when exposure occurs in very

low doses. While ecological modeling is still in its infancy

(because it involves outcomes at numerous levels from a

single

species

to communities of organisms), models, none-

theless, provide valuable information to risk assessors.

[George M. Fell]

River basins

Recognition of the river as the dominant force in forming

basins may be traced back to John Playfair in 1802. In

contrast to the leading opinions, Playfair observed that rivers

were proportional to valley size and tributaries were accor-

dant, neither of which would be likely unless rivers had

created the basins, rather than the other way around. Now

known as Playfair’s law, his observation has led to extensive

efforts to quantify river basin characteristics.

In 1945, R. E. Horton developed the concept of stream

order, and Arthur Strahler further elaborated on the subject.

The smallest tributaries are labeled “1,” and when two first

order streams converge, they form a second order stream

("2"), and so forth. The ratio of lower order to higher order

streams remains remarkably consistent throughout a given

basin. Uniformity is the important factor in all of these

because it demonstrates that

drainage

network characteris-

tics are quantitatively consistent.

Renowned geomorphologist William Morris Davis,

noted in Water, Earth, and Man (1969) that “the river is

like the veins of a leaf; broadly viewed, it is like the entire

leaf.” There is, however, one critical difference. In the leaf,

the flow of water and nutrients is primarily from larger to

smaller veins. However, in river basins all matter, good and

bad, flows downstream. That is why when urban water sys-

tems use rivers, their intakes are located upstream and drain-

age outlets downstream.

Groundwater pollution

follows

this same downward pathway, though at a far slower pace;

it is one of our most serious problems.

The river basin, as part of the

hydrologic cycle

,is

increasingly a technological and social system. For the

United States, an estimated 10% of the national wealth

is devoted to structures involving the movement of water,

including

dams

irrigation

systems, water supply networks,

and sewers, with increasingly sophisticated controls.

The importance of river basins is well illustrated by

the

Tennessee Valley Authority

(TVA) project. Launched

by the Roosevelt Administration in 1933, it was a massive

economic and social effort aimed at the chronic problems

of depleted soils, rampant

soil erosion

, recurrent

flooding

and economic desolation. Industrial demand for electricity

has subsequently grown so large that hydroelectric power,

the initial source, now supplies less than 20% of TVA de-

1217

mand. See also Environmental economics; Sewage treatment;

Topography

[Nathan H. Meleen]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Chorley, R. J., ed. Water, Earth, and Man: A Synthesis of Hydrology, Geomor-

phology, and Socio-economic Geography. London: Methuen, 1969.

Gore, J. A., ed. The Restoration of Rivers and Streams. Boston: Butter-

worth, 1985.

Morisawa, M. Streams: Their Dynamics and Morphology. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1968.

Petulla, J. M. American Environmental History: The Exploitation and Conser-

vation of Natural Resources. San Francisco: Boyd & Fraser, 1977.

River blindness

River blindness is a disease responsible for a high incidence

of partial or total blindness in parts of tropical Africa and

Central America. Also called onchocerciasis, the disease is

caused by infection with Onchocerca volvulus, a thread-shaped

round worm (a nematode), which is transmitted between

people by the biting blackfly Simulium. The larvae of Onchoc-

erca develop into the infective stage, called L4, inside the

blackfly and are introduced into humans by the bite of an

infected blackfly.

Adult Onchocerca (2.5 ft or 0.76 m in length) develop

in the connective tissue under the skin of humans. The adult

worms lie coiled within subcutaneous nodules several inches

in diameter. The nodules are painless and cause little damage,

but can be cosmetically unattractive; fortunately, they are

easily removed by simple surgery. The more serious health

problems associated with onchocerciasis are caused by the

release of masses of early-stage larvae, known as microfilaria,

into the host’s connective tissue under the skin. The mobile

larvae spread throughout the body, including the surface

tissues of the eyes. It is the burrowing activities of these

larvae that cause the symptoms associated with onchocerci-

asis—either severe dermatitis or blindness. Onchocerciasis

can now be treated with drugs such as ivermectin, which

kill the larvae, but the blindness is usually permanent.

Avoiding blackfly bites with protective clothing and

skin repellents is not a practical control measure on a large

scale. The major method of prevention of onchocerciasis in

humans is the control of the blackfly intermediate hosts and

vectors. The larvae and pupae of blackfly are strictly aquatic

and are found only in fast-running water. In Kenya, the

larval stages of S. neavei have been killed by releasing DDT

into streams where the blackflies breed and evolve. However,

the waterways must be treated frequently to prevent the re-

establishment of blackfly populations, and there have been

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

River dolphins

A victim of river blindness is led through a sugar plantation in his village at Banfora, Burkino Faso. (United

Nations. Reproduced by permission.)

serious questions raised over the safety of DDT. In West

Africa, S. damnosum is more difficult to control, since the

adults can fly over considerable distances, and can easily

reinfect cleared sites from up to 60 mi (97 km) away.

Onchocerciasis has long been socially debilitating in

an 11-country area of West Africa where both the flies and

parasites

are abundant. Here, more than one-fifth of all

males over the age of 30 may be blind, turning productive

people into long-term dependents. The presence of the dis-

ease often results in the

migration

of people away from

rivers to higher ground, which they then clear for cultivation.

Clearing vegetation in Africa frequently results in

soil ero-

sion

and the formation of gullies that channel water during

heavy rains. The moving water allows blackflies to breed,

spreading the disease to the new area. The reappearance of

river blindness results in still further human migration, until

large areas of badly eroded land are left unpopulated and

unproductive, and entire villages are abandoned. The disease

has now been brought largely under control by a World

Health Organization program begun in 1974, in which 63

1218

million acres (25 million ha) of land have been made safe

for resettlement.

[Neil Cumberlidge]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Bullock, W. A. People, Parasites, and Pestilence. An introduction to the Natural

History of Infectious Disease. Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company, 1982.

Crosskey, R. W. The Natural History of Blackflies. New York: John Wiley

and Sons, 1990.

Markell, E. K., M. Voge, and D. T. John. Medical Parasitology. 7th ed.

Philadelphia: Saunders, 1992.

Rodger, F. C., ed. Onchocerciasis in Zaire: a New Approach to the Problem

of River Blindness. New York: Pergamon Press, 1977.

River dolphins

River

dolphins

are cetaceans, which means that they related

whales

and porpoises. These mammals live only in rivers

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

River dolphins

and waterways of Asia and South America. There are five

species

of river dolphins belonging to three different fami-

lies. In Asia the Baiji or Chinese river dolphin (Lipotes

vexillifer) lives in the lower part of China’s Chang Jiang or

Yangtze River. On the Indian subcontinent, Indus river

dolphins (Platanista indi) originally were found throughout

almost the entire length of the Indus River, but now are

limited to a stretch of that river in the Sind Province of

Pakistan. Ganges river dolphins (Platanista gangetica) are

found throughout the Ganges River, although their numbers

are decreasing. In South America the Amazon river dolphin

(Inia geoffrensis), also called the boto, is found primarily in

the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers of Brazil and Venezuela.

The South American franciscana river dolphin (Pontoporia

blainvillei), unlike other river dolphins, is a marine (ocean)

dolphin that lives in shallow water close to shore from central

Brazil south to Argentina.

The baiji live in China’s Yangtze River, one of the

busiest waterways in the world. The Chinese have recognized

the baiji river dolphin for centuries. The name “baiji,” which

means “white dolphin,” has been found in a Chinese dictio-

nary from 200

B.C.

This dolphin is also called the Chinese

river dolphin or whitefin dolphin.

Baiji coloring ranges from pale to dark blue-gray on

the back and sides. The belly is white or gray-white. The

dolphin has a triangular dorsal fin and a snout that continues

to grow as it ages.

Newborn calves measure 32–35 in (about 0.8 m) in

length and weigh from 6 to 11 lb (2.7 to 5 kg). Adult females

are somewhat larger than the males. Adult length ranges

from 6.5 to 8 ft (2 to 2.4 m). Adults weigh from 220 to

355 lb (100 to 160 kg).

Indus river dolphins live in a short stretch of the Indus

River in Pakistan. Most dolphins live in an area between

two

dams

built during the 1930s. The dams have limited

their

migration

to other parts of the river. Ganges river

dolphins live in the Ganges, Meghna, and Brahmaputra

rivers in western India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.

They are also found in the Karnaphuli River in Bangladesh.

Indus and Ganges river dolphins share many similari-

ties. They are both called “susu.” The word sounds like a

sneeze and resembles the sound of a dolphin breathing. They

are also called blind river dolphins, because they are the

only dolphins that cannot see. These dolphins navigate by

echolocation, producing sound waves, then interpreting the

echoes these sound waves generate.

The Indus and Ganges river dolphins range in color

from gray-blue to brown. Both have a hump on their back

instead of a dorsal fin. They swim on their side, and females

sometimes carry their young on their back.

Newborn Indus and Ganges river dolphins weigh

about 17 lb (7.7 kg) and measure 28–35 in (about 0.8 m)

1219

in length. Adults weigh 155 to 200 lb (70 to 90 kg). Their

length ranges from 5 to 8 ft (1.5 to 2.5 m).

Amazon river dolphins live in rivers in Brazil, Bolivia,

Colombia, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela that are

part of the Amazon and Orinoco watersheds. They are also

called boto or pink river dolphins. Adults range in color

from blue-gray to pink. The pink color becomes more intense

when these dolphins are more active and dims when they

are less active. The Amazon river dolphin as a hump on its

back instead of a dorsal fin.

Newborn calves weigh about 15 lb (7 kg) and are about

31 in (0.8 m) long. Adults weigh from 185 to 355 lb (85

to 160kg). Adult females range in length from 5 to 7.5 ft

(1.5 to 2.4 m). Male dolphin length ranges from 6.5 to 9

ft (2 to 2.7 m).

According to the Whale and Dolphin Conservation

Society, Amazon river dolphins have entered local South

American folklore. One legend says that male dolphins cap-

tured women and took them underwater. Some women ex-

plained their pregnancies by saying that dolphins fathered

their babies.

Franciscana are classified as river dolphins, although

they live in the Atlantic Ocean. They were originally thought

to move from fresh water to salt water during their lifecycle,

but scientists have now determined that they live their entire

life in the sea. Franciscana are found in the shallow coastal

waters off eastern South America, primarily in the La Plata

estuary. They are also known as La Plata dolphins.

Franciscana have gray-brown backs. Their color may

lighten during the winter or as they age. Some older dolphins

are primarily white. In relation to their size, franciscana have

the longest beaks of any dolphin.

Newborn franciscana are 28 in (0.7 m) long and weigh

from 16 to 19 lb (8.6 kg). Adult length ranges from about

4 to 6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m). Adult franciscana dolphins weigh

from 65 to 115 lb (29 to 52 kg).

Declining populations

The river dolphin population is decreasing throughout

the world, often through stresses caused by development.

Some dolphins are killed by chemical

pollution

. Other dol-

phins become entangled in fishing nets and die, and

hunting

has led to declines in the populations of all river dolphins

except franciscana.

The damming of rivers divides populations and pre-

vents migration to better environments. This has caused a

decline in the population of baiji, Ganges, and Indus river

dolphins. The lack of adequate food supply (prey depletion),

has caused declines in franciscana, baiji, and Ganges dol-

phins. Development has destroyed or polluted much of the

habitat

where dolphins live. Loss of habitat threatens baiji,

franciscana, and Ganges river dolphins.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Rocky Flats nuclear plant

Baiji are the most rare cetacean. The population of

baiji dolphins is in the dozens, according to the World

Conservation Union (IUCN). The Chinese government de-

clared the baiji a protected animal in 1949, and people were

punished for intentionally killing baiji. However, accidents

and development still caused many deaths.

In 1975, China declared the baiji a national treasure,

and subject to more protection. In 1996, the IUCN rated

baiji as one of the 12 most

endangered species

in the

world. In 2000, fewer than 100 individuals were believed to

survive in the wild. Increasing development and the building

of dams along the Yangtze River is likely to kill the few

animals remaining.

In 1998, the IUCN estimated that the population of

Indus river dolphins was less than 1,000. In 2000, the Indus

dolphin was considered critically endangered and threatened

with

extinction

. In addition, in 2000 the IUCN estimated

that only a few thousand wild Ganges river dolphins re-

mained. It is also considered an endangered species.

South American river dolphin population has not been

depleted as much as the river dolphin population of Asia.

Although the exact population of Amazon river dolphins

has not been estimated, they are believed to have to the

largest population of all species of river dolphin. In 1996, the

IUCN considered Amazon river dolphins to be vulnerable to

population decreases because of increased dam building

along the Amazon River. According to the IUCN, inade-

quate verifiable data exists about the population of francis-

cana dolphins. Lack of data has made protection and man-

agement of this dolphin population difficult.

[Liz Swain]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Blair, Cornelia, Mark Siegal, and Nancy Jacobs, eds. Endangered Species

1998. Wylie, TX: Information Plus, 1998.

Carwardine, Mark, ed. Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: Check-

mark Books, 1999.

Day, Trevor. Oceans. New York: Facts on File, 1999.

RGANIZATIONS

American Cetacean Society, P.O. Box 1391, San Pedro, CA USA 90733-

1391 (310) 548-6279, Fax: (310) 548-6950, Email: acs@pobox.com,

<http://www.acsonline.org>

Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, P.O. Box 232, Melksham,

WiltshireUnited Kingdom SN12 7SB 44 (0) 1225-354333, Fax: (44) (0)

1225-791577, Email: webmaster@wdcs.org, <http://www.wdcs.org>

World Conservation Union Headquarters, Rue Mauverney 28, Gland,

Switzerland 1196 41 (22) 999-0000, Fax: 41 (22) 999-0002, Email:

mail@hq.iucn.org, <http://www.iucn.org>

Rivers

see

Amazon basin; Colorado River;

1220

Cuyahoga River; Hudson River; River basins;

Wild river

RMA

see

Rocky Mountain Arsenal

RNA

see

Ribonucleic acid

Rocky Flats nuclear plant

The production of

nuclear weapons

inherently poses seri-

ous risks to the

environment

. At any point in the production

process, radioactive materials may escape into the sur-

rounding air and water, and safe methods for the disposal

of waste from the manufacturing process still have not been

developed. The environmental risks posed by the production

of nuclear weapons are illustrated by the history of the Rocky

Flats Nuclear Munitions Plant, located 16 mi (26 km) north-

west of Denver, Colorado.

Rocky Flats was built in 1952, following an extensive

search for sites at which to build plants for the processing

plutonium

metal, a critical raw material used in the

production of nuclear weapons. Authorities wanted a loca-

tion that was close enough to a large city to attract scientists,

but far enough away to ensure the safety of city residents.

Another important factor in site selection was wind

measurements. The government wanted to be sure that, in

the event of an accident, radioactive gases would not be

blown over heavily populated areas. The selection of Rocky

Flats was justified on the basis of wind measurements made

at Denver’s Stapleton airport, showing that prevailing winds

blow from the south in that area. Had the same studies been

carried out at Rocky Flats itself, however, they would have

shown that prevailing winds come from the northwest, and

any release of radioactive gases would be carried not away

from Denver but toward it.

Over the next four decades, this unfortunate mistake

was to have serious consequences as spills, leaks, fires, and

other accidents became routine at Rocky Flats. On Septem-

ber 11, 1957, for example, the

filters

on glove boxes caught

fire and burned for 13 hours. These filters were used to

prevent plutonium dust on used gloves from escaping into

the outside air, but once the fire began this is exactly what

happened. The release of plutonium was even accelerated

when workers turned on exhaust fans to clear the plant of

smoke

. Smokestack monitors showed levels of plutonium

16,000 times greater than the maximum recommended level.

Officials at Rocky Flats reportedly made no effort to notify

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Rocky Flats nuclear plant

local authorities or residents about the accidental release of

the radioactive gases.

This incident reflects the contradiction between the

commitment of the United States government to the devel-

opment of nuclear weapons and its concern for protecting

the health of its citizens, as well as the natural environment.

In 1992, a government report on Rocky Flats accused the

Department of Energy (DOE) of resisting efforts by the

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) and state envi-

ronmental agencies to make nuclear weapons plants comply

with environmental laws and regulations. DOE officials de-

fended this policy by saying that Rocky Flats was the only

site in the United States at which plutonium triggers for

nuclear weapons were being produced.

The Rocky Flats plant was originally operated by Dow

Chemical Company. In 1975, Rockwell International Cor-

poration replaced Dow as manager of the plant. Over the

next 14 years, Rockwell faced increasing criticism for its

inattention to safety considerations both within the plant

and in the surrounding area.

Rockwell’s problems came to a head on a June morning

in 1989, when a team of 75 FBI agents entered the plant and

began searching the 6,550-acre (2,653-ha) complex for evi-

dence of deliberate violations of environmental laws. As a re-

sult of the search, Rockwell was relieved of its contract at

Rocky Flatsand replaced by EG&G, Inc., anengineering firm

based in Wellesley, Massachusetts. The ensuing investigation

of safety violations lasted over two years and in March 1992

Rockwell plead guilty to 10 crimes, five of them felonies, in-

volving intentional violations of environmental laws. The

company agreed to pay $18.5 million in fines, the second larg-

est fine for an environmental offense in United States history.

The fine did not, however, end the dispute over the

safety record at Rocky Flats. Rockwell officials claimed that

the Department of Energy was also at fault for the plant’s

poor environmental record. The company argued that the

DOE had not only exempted them from environmental

compliance but had even encouraged it to break environmen-

tal laws, especially

hazardous waste

laws. The federal

grand jury that investigated the Rocky Flats case agreed with

Rockwell. Not only was the DOE equally guilty, the grand

jury decided, but the plant’s new manager, EG&G, was

continuing to violate environmental laws even as the case

was being heard in Denver. Members of the jury were so

angry about the way the case had been handled that they

wrote President Bill Clinton, asking him to investigate the

government’s role at Rocky Flats.

Secretary of Energy James Watkins had closed Rocky

Flats for repairs in November 1989 and it remained closed

during the course of the investigation. Rocky Flat’s problems

appeared to be over in January 1992 when EG&G an-

nounced that, after spending $50 million in repairs, the plant

1221

was ready to re-open. Within a matter of days, however,

Secretary Watkins ordered that weapons production at the

plant permanently cease.

When Secretary Watkins made his decision to close

Rocky Flats, the area faced two environmental challenges. In

the first place, the site contained the largest stockpile of weap-

ons grade plutonium in the United States, totaling more than

14 tons of the metal. The plutonium had been left in whatever

form it occurred at the time of the plant shutdown, including

water solutions, partially machined parts, and raw materials.

The plutonium poses a threat because of its potential for start-

ing fires, exposing workers to radiation, and threatening near-

by communities in the event of an accident at the site.

In the second environmental challenge, buildings and

facilities covering a 6,500 acre (2,630 ha) region had become

seriously contaminated during the plant’s 40-year lifetime.

While a less serious short-term danger, this extensive con-

tamination still poses a threat that could extend over centu-

ries without some action to deal with it.

Agencies responsible for the future of Rocky Flats—

primarily the EPA, the Colorado Department of Public

Health and Environment, and the Defense Nuclear Facilities

Safety Board—decided on a two-prong approach to the

clean-up of Rocky Flats. The first step is to deal with the

immediate threat of plutonium left behind on the site by

finding safe ways of safely storing the material. This step

involves activities such as draining tanks and pipes that have

been used for plutonium-containing solutions; venting plu-

tonium-containing waste drums and tanks of

hydrogen

gas

that has built up within them; and re-packaging containers

in which plutonium has been stored, making them safer for

long-term storage. The cost of this operation in the site’s

first full year of clean-up was $573 million and employed

an estimated 9,374 workers.

The second stage of the Rocky Flats clean-up opera-

tion will involve dealing with contamination that had devel-

oped on the site over its 40-year history. For this purpose,

Rocky Flats was added to the

National Priorities List

for

Superfund in 1989. Among the challenges to be solved in

this clean-up are

soil

and

groundwater

that have been

contaminated by the burial of nuclear materials,

chemicals

spills, and other accidents. There are also tens of thousands

of cubic yards of wastes produced while the plant was in

operation that must now be shipped to some permanent

storage area. Originally estimated to take upwards of 70

years, a contract was signed by DOE and Kaiser-Hill on

January 24, 2000 to have the Rocky Flats Environmental

Technology Site (renamed soon after production closure)

closed by December 15, 2006. As of 2002, the project was

operating well within the six year time frame.

[David E. Newton]

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Rocky Mountain Arsenal

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

Pasternak, D. “A $200 Billion Scandal.” U.S. News & World Report (Decem-

ber 14, 1992): 34–37+.

“The Rocky Flats Cover-Up, Continued.” Harper’s (December 1992):

19–23.

Schneider, K. “U.S. Shares Blame in Abuses at A-Plant.” New York Times

(March 27, 1992): A12.

Wald, M. L. “Rockwell To Plead Guilty and Pay Large Fine for Dumping

Waste.” New York Times (March 26, 1992): A1.

———. “New Disclosures Over Bomb Plant.” New York Times (November

22, 1992): 23.

THER

U.S. Department of Energy. Rocky Flats Closure Project. [cited July 2002].

<http://www.rfets.gov>.

Rocky Mountain Arsenal

The Rocky Mountain Arsenal (RMA), a few miles northeast

of Denver, was originally constructed and operated by the

Chemical Corps of the United States Army. Beginning in

1942, the arsenal was the main site at which the Chemical

Corps manufactured chemical weapons such as mustard gas,

nerve gas, and phosgene. The Army eventually leased part

of the 27 mi

(70 km

) plot of land to the Shell Oil Company

which produced DDT, dieldrin,

chlordane

, parathion, al-

drin, and other pesticides at the site.

The presence of a chemical weapons plant has long been

a source of concern for many Coloradans. In 1968, for exam-

ple, a group of Denver-area residents complained that nerve

gas was being stored in an open pit directly beneath one of the

flight paths into Denver’s Stapleton International Airport.

Indeed, the Army was well aware of the hazard posed

by its RMA products. In 1961, it found that wastes from

manufacturing processes were seeping into the ground, con-

taminating

groundwater

and endangering crops in the area.

The Army’s solution was to institute a new method of waste

disposal. In September 1961, engineers drilled a deep well

12,045 ft (3,654 m) into the earth. The lowest 75 ft (23 m)

of the well was located in a highly fractured layer of rock.

The Army’s plan was to dump its chemical wastes into this

deep well. The unexpressed principle seemed to be out of

sight, out of mind.

Fluids were first injected under pressure into the well

on March 8, 1962, and pressure-injection continued over

the next six months at the rate of 5.5 million gal (21 million

l) per month. After a delay of about a year, wastes were once

more injected at the rate of 2 million gal (7.5 million l) per

month from August 1964 to February 1966. This practice

was then terminated.

The reason for ending this method of waste disposal

was the discovery that earthquakes had begun to occur in

1222

the Denver area at about the same time that the Army had

started using its deep

injection well

. Seismologists found

that the pattern of the earthquakes in the region between

1962 and 1966 closely matched the pattern of waste injection

in the

wells

. When large volumes of wastes were injected

into the well, many earthquakes occurred. When injection

stopped, the number decreased. Scientists believe that the

liquid wastes pumped into the injection well lubricated the

joints between rock layers, making it easier for them to slide

back and forth, creating earthquakes.

Earthquakes are hardly a new phenomenon for resi-

dents of Colorado. Situated high in the Rocky Mountains,

they experience dozens each year although most are minor

earthquakes. However, the suggestion that the Army’s activ-

ity at RMA might be increasing the risk of earthquakes

became a matter of great concern. The proximity of RMA

to Denver raised the possibility of a major disaster in one

of the West’s largest metropolitan areas.

Faced with this possibility, the Army decided to stop

using its injection well on February 20, 1966. Earthquakes

continued to occur at an abnormally high rate, however, for

at least another five years. Scientists hope that liquids in the

well will eventually diffuse through the earth, reducing the

risk of further major earthquakes.

In 1992 Congress announced plans to convert the

arsenal to a

wildlife refuge

. The land around RMA had

been so badly poisoned that humans essentially abandoned

the area for many years. The absence of humans, however,

made it possible for a number of

species

wildlife

flourish.

On October 16, 1996, the U.S. Army announced its

plans for the clean-up of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal. That

plan dealt with three areas of environmental concern: water,

structures, and

soil

. The Army declared its intent to continue

its program of treating water supplies and groundwater on

the site and to provide safe drinking water to neighboring

off-site communities. It outlined plans to demolish all ex-

isting buildings for which no future use had been designated.

These buildings along with all other contaminated materials

were scheduled for disposal in new on-site capped landfills.

The most extensive clean-up efforts were to be focused

on soil that had been contaminated by activities at the Arse-

nal. Any unexploded weapons were scheduled for removal

and off-site detonation. Contaminated soils and other mate-

rials were to be buried in new waste landfills. These landfills

were designed to consist of leak-proof barriers with 6 in (15

cm) concrete barrier caps and underground barrier walls to

protect wildlife from their contents. Existing trenches and

sewers are to be surrounded by barrier walls, covered with

concrete barrier caps, and/or plugged with concrete caps, all

to protect wildlife from their contents.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Rocky Mountain Institute

In addition to these physical plans, the Army an-

nounced plans for three other on-going activities at the

Arsenal: (1) the discontinuation of any additional

hazard-

ous waste

disposal activities at the Arsenal; (2) on-going

medical monitoring at adjacent communities during the pe-

riod of clean-up; and (3) monitoring and control of emissions

and odors from the site during clean-up.

Clean-up activities at RMA are being directed by the

U.S. Army under the supervision of the

Environmental

Protection Agency

. In 2001, there were 31 environmental

clean-up projects proposed, and 26 were underway. The

Shell Chemical Company is also participating in the study

of environmental problems at RMA and in efforts to deal

with those problems. Until the clean-up process has been

completed, the former RMA site is being managed as a

wildlife refuge by the U.S. Department of the Interior’s

Fish

and Wildlife Service

. At the conclusion of the process, the

refuge will become a

National Wildlife Refuge

[David E. Newton]

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

“Aresenal Update.” Defense Cleanup 12 no. 10 (March 9, 2001): 78.

Breen, B. “From Superfund Site to Wildlife Refuge.” Garbage 4 (May-

June 1992): 22.

Gascoyne, S. “From Toxic Site to Wildlife Refuge; If Approved an Ambi-

tious Plan Would Transform a Former Chemical-Weapons Arsenal near

Denver.” The Christian Science Monitor (September 12, 1991): 10.

Rocky Mountain Institute

Founded by energy analysts Hunter and

Amory B. Lovins

in 1982, the Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) is a nonprofit

research and education center dedicated to the

conservation

of energy and other resources worldwide. According to liter-

ature published by the Institute, the Lovinses founded RMI

with the intention of fostering “the efficient and sustainable

use of resources as a path to global security.” RMI targets

seven main areas for reform: energy, water, agriculture,

transportation

, economic renewal, green development, and

global security.

RMI’s energy and water programs attempt to promote

energy efficiency

and the use of renewable resources. The

programs take an “end-use/least-cost” approach, promoting

awareness of which activities require energy, how much and

what types of energy those activities require, and the cheapest

way that energy can be supplied. E Source, a subsidiary of the

energy program, serves as a clearinghouse for technological

information on energy efficiency.

1223

The agriculture program at RMI focuses on several

conservation-based methods, including low-input, organic

and alternative-crop farming, efficient

irrigation

, local and

direct marketing, and the raising of extra-lean and range

beef. The program is closely linked to RMI’s water project.

RMI’s transportation program is based on the belief

that “inefficient transportation systems shape and misshape

our world.” The project seeks an end to a transportation-

based society and a start to one that is access-based, empha-

sizing superefficient vehicles and a decrease in the necessity

to travel over mobility.

RMI’s economic renewal program seeks to create last-

ing economic bases in rural areas. The project works on a

grassroots level and has been tested in four towns. Through

workshops and workbooks based on studies of several towns,

RMI hopes to promote energy use based on sustainability

in the future rather than industrialism in the present.

In the area of green development, RMI is involved in

cost-effective innovative construction and energy planning

for new towns. RMI has conducted efficiency studies for a

new building and has acted as consultants on a prototype

store for a major retailer as part of this project.

The global security program is more scholarship- and

theory-oriented than RMI’s other projects and is based on

the concept that innovation in the other six areas—energy,

water, agriculture, economic renewal, transportation, and

green development—will lead to new ways of thinking with

regards to global security. Through scholarly exchange and

analysis of security practice around the world, the staff at

RMI hope to help develop a post-Cold War, cooperative

approach to global security that is less reliant on military

strength.

RMI’s technologically advanced, energy efficient facil-

ity that houses their headquarters features a semi-tropical

bioshelter among other showcases of conservation innova-

tions. The facility stands as a visible monument to RMI’s

commitment to conserving the world’s resources.

Hunter and Amory Lovins have received several

awards for their work with the Institute, including a Mitchell

Prize in 1982, a Right Livelihood award in 1983, and the

Onassis Foundation’s first Delphi Prize in 1989. The Delphi

Prize is considered one of the top two environmental awards

in the world.

[Kristin Palm]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

Rocky Mountain Institute, 1739 Snowmass Creek Road, Snowmass, CO

USA 81654-9199 (970) 927-3851, <http://www.rmi.org>

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Rodale Institute

The Rodale Institute developed out of the efforts begun by

J. I. Rodale to promote

organic gardening and farming

in the 1930s. The notion of

recycling

organic matter back

into the

soil

to yield healthier and more productive crops

was not widely accepted at that time, so in 1942, Rodale

began publishing Organic Gardening and Farming magazine.

From those simple beginnings, Rodale’s mission grew

to become a multi-faceted organization dedicated to “im-

proving human health through regenerative farming and

organic gardening.” Today, the Rodale Institute supports

and publishes research to further

organic farming

, facili-

tates farming networks, engages in international farming

programs, and publishes numerous resources for gardeners

and organic farmers.

The Rodale Institute Research Center is a 333-acre

(135-ha) farm in Kutztown, Pennsylvania, where organic

horticulture and

sustainable agriculture

techniques are

tested. The Rodale staff focuses on farming projects that

help enrich and protect the world’s

natural resources

.Of

particular importance to the institute’s gardeners are the

flower, fruit, vegetable, and herb gardens that are maintained

at the Research Center. Practices that are employed in these

gardens include the use of beneficial insects and cover crops

to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides.

Another goal of the institute is to facilitate communi-

cation between farmers and urban dwellers. This is especially

important as urban communities continue to expand into

the countryside. The Rodale Institute sponsors programs to

help these two seemingly competing groups work together

for mutual benefit. For example, Rodale has initiated a com-

munity

composting

program whereby the grass cuttings

and leaves from urban areas are collected and delivered to

farms, where they are composted and used to enrich the

soil. This program decreases the need for

landfill

space and

provides soil-enriching organic matter to farmers. Rodale

Institute also encourages mutual understanding between

farmers and city dwellers by hosting such events as Field

Days and GardenFest.

The Rodale Institute’s networking program helps

farmers link up with one another to share information on

sustainable farming. These farms participate in Rodale Insti-

tute’s research and often experiment with alternatives to

conventional farming methods. Through the publication The

New Farm, the cooperational farmers share their experiences

and questions with many farmers across the country.

Rodale has established cooperative programs with sev-

eral universities around the world to further their research.

Among those universities are Pennsylvania State University,

Cornell University, Michigan State University, University

of Padova (Italy), Northeast Forestry University (China),

1224

South China Environmental Institute, Jiangsu Academy of

Agricultural Sciences (China), and the Institute for Land

Improvement and Grassland Farming (Poland).

Rodale Institute’s programs extend to international

farmers as well. With sights set on developing long-term,

preventative measures against

famine

and poverty, the insti-

tute has established programs in Africa and South America.

The African program is based in Senegal and brings together

farmers, villages, government agencies, and other organiza-

tions to work toward famine prevention through

conserva-

tion

and soil quality improvement. In South America, Ro-

dale works with Guatemalan farmers to encourage

sustainable farming and help preserve the disappearing forest

regions. This particular program combines modern knowl-

edge with traditional Mayan farming techniques to produce

high quality yields from healthy soil.

Perhaps to the non-farmer, Rodale is best known for

its publications. In addition to Organic Gardening and The

New Farm magazines, Rodale publishes a large selection

of instructional books for farmers, gardeners, and others

interested in organic farming.

[Linda Ross]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

The Rodale Institute, 611 Siegfriedale Road, Kutztown, PA USA 19530-

9320 (610) 683-1400, Fax: (610) 683-8548, Email: info@rodaleinst.org

Rodenticide

see

Pesticide

RODs

see

Records of decision

Holmes Rolston (1932 – )

American environmental and religious philosopher

Holmes Rolston has devoted his distinguished career to

plausibly and meaningfully interpreting the natural world

from a philosophical perspective and is regarded as one of

the world’s leading scholars on the philosophical, scientific,

and religious conceptions of

nature

. His early work on

values in nature, as well as his role as a founder of the

influential academic journal Environmental Ethics, was criti-

cal not only in establishing but also in shaping and defining

the modern field of environmental philosophy. In his 1988

book Environmental Ethics: Values in and Duties to the Natu-

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Holmes Rolston

Holmes Rolston. (Colorado State University Photo-

graphic Archives. Reproduced by permission.)

ral World, Rolston presented a philosophically sophisticated

and defensible case for a value-centered ecological ethic, one

which derives ethical conclusions from descriptive premises.

Rolston clearly states that intrinsic values objectively exist

at the

species

biotic community

, and individual levels in

nature and that these values impose on humans certain direct

obligations to nonhuman entities, such as species and ecosys-

tems. These obligations are separate from and sometimes

in conflict with those based on the instrumental value of

nature, which may motivate humans to protect the

environ-

ment

for their own benefit.

Rolston is one of the most prolific writers and sought-

after speakers in the field today. His work is unusually acces-

sible to a wide audience, and he has pioneered the application

of ethical theory to actual environmental problems by con-

sulting with two dozen

conservation

and policy groups,

including the United States Congress and a Presidential

Commission.

Rolston came to prominence in this field in a round-

about way. Born in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, he

studied physics as an undergraduate at Davidson College

before entering theological seminary. After completing his

Ph.D. in theology and religious studies at the University of

Edinburgh in Scotland, Rolston spent nearly a decade as a

Presbyterian pastor in rural southwest Virginia. During this

1225

time, Rolston’s love for and curiosity about nature and

wil-

derness

grew unabated. He fed his love of these things by

learning the natural history of his surroundings in splendid

detail and by becoming an activist on local environmental

issues. In his search for a philosophy of nature to complement

his biology, Rolston entered the philosophy program at the

University of Pittsburgh, where he received a master’s degree

in philosophy of science in 1968. He then embarked on

an academic career at Colorado State University, where he

currently holds the prestigious position of University Distin-

guished Professor.

The major theoretical innovations of Rolston’s work

include the reconceptualization of ethical extensionism to

accommodate

intrinsic value

at all levels of nature, a task

for which the ordinary methods and vocabulary of traditional

ethics proved inadequate. The result is a biologically-based

account of natural values which is hierarchical but nonan-

thropocentric. He has thus established himself as the fore-

most proponent and defender of intrinsic natural value

theory. Rolston is often identified as the father of

environ-

mental ethics

as a modern academic discipline. As such,

he occupies a singular place of importance in modern philos-

ophy. Rolston continues to integrate the practical and theo-

retical dimensions of his work, as he examines life to discover

its meaning and expands the circle of moral significance to

include all natural entities, processes, and systems. In addi-

tion to Environmental Ethics, Rolston has written several

other critically acclaimed books, including Philosophy Gone

Wild, Science and Religion: A Critical Survey, and Conserving

Natural Value, and has contributed to dozen other books

and professional and popular periodicals. Rolston is also an

avid backpacker, accomplished field naturalist, and respected

bryologist.

[Ann S. Causey]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Rolston, Holmes. Environmental Ethics: Duties to and Values in the Natural

World. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988.

———. Genes, Genesis, and God. New York: Cambridge University

Press, 1999.

———. Philosophy Gone Wild: Environmental Ethics. Buffalo, NY: Pro-

metheus Books, 1989.

———. Science and Religion: A Critical Survey. Philadelphia: Temple Uni-

versity Press, 1987.

ERIODICALS

Rolston, Holmes. “Values Deep in the Woods.” American Forests 94 (May–

June 1988): 33–7.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Pierre Ronsard

Pierre Ronsard (1524 – 1585)

French naturalist and poet

Pierre Ronsard transformed his life from one of possible

anguish into one in which he created a legacy that has lasted

for centuries. Born into a noble family in near Vendome,

France in September of 1524, Ronsard was the younger of

their sons. His life was one of privilege—from the benefits

of a classical education in his family’s residence at the Cha-

teau de la Poissoinniere to being sent away to the College

of Navarre, in Paris, at the early age of nine. Before graduat-

ing from college, he left and was appointed page to the

Duke of Orleans, son of King Francis I. Later, he would

become page to James V, King of Scotland where he stayed

for three years. While there and through time spent in

England Ronsard became proficient in the English language.

His travels then took him to Germany, Italy, and other

countries throughout Europe.

In 1841 Ronsard was afflicted with an incurable deaf-

ness. Plans for a military career were no longer an option for

him. He was only 17 and decided to retire from public life and

pursue his studies again. For seven years he studied Greek at

the College de Coqueret; and he became further involved with

his passion of poetry. By 1550 he was awarded with the title

of “Prince ofPoets,” successful in his desire to find a new direc-

tion for French poetry. He continued to be a favorite of royalty

abroad. He received a diamond from Queen Elizabeth of En-

gland who was a relative. Mary Stuart of Scotland escaped

the woes of prison life through Ronsard’s poetry. The city of

Toulouse in his native France presented him with a solid silver

award in tribute to the goddess Minerva.

Ronsard remained in ill health while writing volumes

of poetry that was revolutionary in many ways, including

the words he carried into it and enhance the entire French

vocabulary. Not only did he add words from Greek and

Latin; he also uncovered old romantic dialects, and utilized

the technical languages found in the trades, in science, and

in sports. Writing for him produced harmony for others.

Scholars consider him to be the best lyrical poet in France

until the romantic age that arrived with the nineteenth cen-

tury poets. He was a figure known and beloved throughout

his country, a celebration that would rival only writer Victor

Hugo nearly 300 years later. One of his many poems, Roses

would inspire an honor bestowed on the two hundreth anni-

versary of his death—the Pierre Ronsard rose, a delicate

pink known also as the

Eden Climber

During the last years of his life Ronsard became a

minor monk with the Priory of Saint Cosme on an ancient

island on the Loire River. The original buildings were estab-

lished between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries. Rons-

ard’s original works are contained there in the Prior’s house,

rebuilt over a hundred years following his death in 1585.

1226

Visitors to the priory (reservations arerequired) can visit

Ronsard’s tomb, walk through the gardens, see his original

works, and attend festivals in his honor. His devotion to

love and

nature

has given him the honor of being known as

the “Father of Nature.” Many present-day environmentalists

credit Ronsard with beginning the movement toward preser-

vation of lands, forests, and gardens. He carried his passion

with him and gave of it so generously to all his readers,

and to generations following that would enjoy the graceful

harmony with which he presented it.

[Jane Spear]

ESOURCES

THER

“Gardens of the Priory of Saint-Cosme.” Gardens of France (Jardins-de-

France). [cited July 2002]. <http://www.jardins-de-france.com>.

“Pierre de Ronsard.” France web. [cited July 2002]. <http://franceweb.fr/

poesie>.

“Pierre de Ronsard.” New Advent. [cited July 2002]. <http://www.newad-

vent.org>.

“Pierre de Ronsard.”Sonnett Central. [cited July 2002]. <http://www.son-

nets.org>.

“Pinks.” Potee. [cited July 2002]. <http://potee.com/rose.html>.

“Priory of Saint Cosme.” Counsel General of Loire, France. [cited July 2002].

<http://www.cg37.fr>.

RGANIZATIONS

Priory of Saint Cosme, Loire France 33-(2) 47 37 32 70, <http://

www.cg37.fr/>

Theodore Roosevelt (1858 – 1919)

American politician and conservationist

Historians often cite

conservation

natural resources

as Theodore Roosevelt’s most enduring contribution to the

country. As the nation’s twenty-sixth President, Roosevelt

was faced with critical conservation issues and made decisive

moves to promote conservation, thus becoming the national

leader most clearly associated with preservation of

public

land

Roosevelt was born into a wealthy family in New York

City, and early took an interest in the outdoors, partly to

compensate for

asthma

and a frail constitution. He was an

avid naturalist as a child, an early interest that lasted all his

life and, as Paul R. Cutright documents in detail in his

Theodore Roosevelt: The Making of a Conservationist, Roose-

velt was instrumental in creating a role model for conserva-

tionists. Certainly, much of his attention to conservation

derived at least in part from his interest in the natural science

that underlay those issues.

He was, for example, a life-long bird watcher and

relished the fact that he could match John Burroughs’s prow-