Environmental Encyclopedia

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Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Black-footed ferret

cigarette smoking. The more advanced forms of black lung

disease are frequently associated with

emphysema

chronic

bronchitis

. There is no real treatment for this dis-

ease, but it may be controlled or its development arrested

by avoiding exposure to coal dust. Black lung disease is

probably the best know occupational illness in the United

States. In some regions, more than 50% of coal miners

develop the disease after 30 or more years on the job. See

also Fibrosis; Respiratory diseases

[Linda Rehkopf]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Moeller, D. W. Environmental Health. Cambridge: Harvard University

Press, 1992.

Black-footed ferret

A member of the Mustelidae (weasel) family, the black-

footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) is the only ferret native to

North America. It has pale yellow fur, an off-white throat

and belly, a dark face, black feet, and a black tail. The black-

footed ferret usually grows to a length of 18 in (46 cm) and

weighs 1.5–3 lb (0.68–1.4 kg), though the males are larger

than the females. These ferrets have short legs and slender

bodies, and lope along by placing both front feet on the

ground followed by both back feet.

Ferrets live in prairie dog burrows and feed primarily

upon

prairie dogs

, mice, squirrels, and gophers, as well as

small rabbits and carrion. Ferrets are nocturnal animals;

activity outside the burrow occurs after sunset until about

two hours before sunrise. They do not hibernate and remain

active all year long.

Breeding takes place once a year, in March or early

April, and during the mating season males and females share

common burrows. The gestation period lasts approximately

six weeks, and the female may have from one to five kits

per litter. The adult male does not participate in raising the

young. The kits remain in the burrow where they are pro-

tected and nursed by their mother until about four weeks

of age, usually sometime in July, when she weans them and

begins to take them above ground. She either kills a prairie

dog and carries it to her kits or moves them into the burrow

with the dead animal. During July and early August, she

usually relocates her young to new burrows every three or

four days, whimpering to encourage them to follow her or

dragging them by the nape of their neck. At about eight

weeks old the kits begin to play above ground. In late August

and early September the mother positions her young in

separate burrows, and by mid-September her offspring have

left to establish their own territories.

167

Black-footed ferret (

Mustela nigripes

). (Visuals

Unlimited. Reproduced by permission.)

Black-footed ferrets, like other members of the muste-

lid family, establish their territories by scent marking. They

have well developed lateral and anal scent glands. The ferrets

mark their territory by either wiggling back and forth while

pressing their pelvic scent glands against the ground, or by

rubbing their lateral scent glands against shrubs and rocks.

Urination is a third form of scent marking. Males establish

large territories that may encompass one or more females

of the

species

and exclude all other males. Females establish

smaller territories.

Historically, the black-footed ferret was found from

Alberta, Canada southward throughout the Great Plains

states. The decline of this species began in the 1800s with

the settling of the west. Homesteaders moving into the Great

Plains converted the prairie into agricultural lands, which

led to a decline in the population of prairie dogs. Considering

them a nuisance species, ranchers and farmers undertook a

campaign to eradicate the prairie dog. The black-footed

ferret is dependent upon the prairie dog: it takes 100–150

acres (40–61 ha) of prairie-dog colonies to sustain one adult.

Because it takes such a large area to sustain a single adult,

one small breeding group of ferrets requires at least 10 mi

(26 km

)of

habitat

. As the prairie dog colonies became

scattered, the groups were unable to sustain themselves.

In 1954 the

National Park Service

began capturing

black-footed ferrets in an attempt to save them from their

endangered status. These animals were released in

wildlife

sanctuaries that had large prairie dog populations. Black-

footed ferrets, however, are highly susceptible to canine dis-

temper, and this disease wiped out the animals the park

service had relocated.

In September 1981, scientists located the only known

wild population of black-footed ferrets near the town of

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Blackout/brownout

Meeteetse in northwestern Wyoming. The colony lived in

25 prairie dog towns covering 53 mi

(137 km

). But in 1985

canine distemper decimated the prairie dog towns around

Meeteetse and spread among the ferret population, quickly

reducing their numbers. Researchers feared that without

immediate action the black-footed ferret would become ex-

tinct. The only course of action appeared to be removing

them from the wild. If an animal had not been exposed to

canine distemper, it could be vaccinated and saved. Some

animals from the Meeteetse population did survive in cap-

tivity.

There is a breeding program and research facility called

the National Black-footed Ferret Conservation Center in

Wyoming, and in 1987 the Wyoming Fish and Game De-

partment implemented a plan for preserving the black-footed

ferret within the state. Researchers identified habitats where

animals bred in captivity could be relocated. The program

began with the 18 animals from the wild population located

at Meeteetse. In 1987 seven kits were born to this group.

The following year 13 female black-footed ferrets had litters

and 34 of the kits survived. In 1998 about 330 kits survived.

Captive propagation efforts have improved the outlook for

the black-footed ferret, and captive populations will continue

to be used to reestablish ferrets in the wild. Almost 2,000

black-footed ferrets that were bred and raised in captivity

have been released into the wild.

[Debra Glidden]

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

“Back Home on the Range.” Environment 33 (November 1991): 23.

Behler, D. “Baby Black-Footed Ferrets Sighted.” Wildlife Conservation 95

(November–December 1992): 7.

Cohn, J. “Ferrets Return From Near Extinction.” Bioscience 41 (March

1991): 132–5.

THER

“Black-footed Ferret.” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. October 2001 [cited

May 2002]. <http://endangered.fws.gov/i/a07.html>.

Blackout/brownout

A blackout is a total loss of electrical power. A blackout is

usually defined as a drop in line voltage below 80 volts (V)

(the normal voltage is 120V), since most electrical equipment

will not operate below these levels. A blackout may be due

to a planned interruption, such as limiting of loads during

power shortages by rotating power shutoffs through different

areas, or due to an accidental failure caused by human error,

a failure of generating or transmission equipment, or a storm.

Blackouts can cause losses of industrial production, distur-

bances to commercial activities, traffic and

transportation

168

difficulties, disruption of municipal services, and personal

inconveniences. In the summer of 1977, a blackout caused

by transmission line losses during a storm affected the New

York City area. About nine million people were affected by

the blackout, with some areas without power for more than

24 hours. The blackout was accompanied by looting and

vandalism. A blackout in northeastern United States and

eastern Canada due to a switching relay failure in November

of 1965 affected 30 million people and resulted in improved

electric utility power system design.

A brownout is a condition (usually temporary, but

which may last longer, i.e., from periods ranging from frac-

tions of a second to hours) when the alternating current

(AC) electrical utility voltage is lower than normal. If the

brownout lasts less than a second, it is called a sag. Brownouts

may be caused by overloaded circuits, but are sometimes

caused intentionally by a utility company in order to reduce

the amount of power drawn by users during peak demand

periods, or unintentionally when demand for electricity ex-

ceeds generating capacity. A sag can also occur when line

switching is employed to access power from secondary utility

sources. Equipment such as shop tools, compressors, and

elevators starting up on a shared power line can cause a

sag, which can adversely affect other sensitive electronic

equipment such as computers. Generally, electrical utility

customers do not notice a brownout except when it does

affect sensitive electronic equipment.

Measures to protect against effects of blackouts and

brownouts include efficient design of power networks, inter-

connection of power networks to improve

stability

, moni-

toring of generating reserve needs during periods of peak

demand, and standby power for emergency needs. An indi-

vidual piece of equipment can be protected from blackouts

and brownouts by the use of an uninterruptible power source

(UPS). A UPS is a device with internal batteries that is used

to guarantee that continuous power is supplied to equipment

even if the power supply stops providing power or during

line sags. Commonly the UPS will boost voltage if the volt-

age drops to less than 103V and will switch to battery power

at 90V and below. Some UPS devices are capable of shutting

down the equipment during extended blackouts.

[Judith L. Sims]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Curvin, R., and B. Porter. Blackout Looting! New York City, July 13, 1977.

New York: Gardner Press, 1979.

Dugan, R.C. Electrical Power Systems Quality. New York, McGraw-Hill,

1996.

Kabisama, H.W. Electrical Power Engineering. New York: McGraw-

Hill, 1993.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Blue revolution (fish farming)

Kazibwe, W.E., and M.H. Sendaula. Electric Power Quality Control Tech-

niques. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993.

BLM

see

Bureau of Land Management

Blow-out

A blow-out occurs where the

soil

is left unprotected to the

erosive force of the wind. Blow-outs commonly occur as

depressional areas, once enough soil has been removed. They

most often occur in sandy soils, where vegetation is sparse.

Blue Angel

The best known environmental product certification effort

outside the United States, the Blue Angel program was

initiated by the German government in 1977. The Blue

Angel label features a stylized angel with arms outstretched

encircled by a laurel wreath. Since its inception, the program

has certified more than 4,000 products, including automo-

biles, batteries, and deodorants, as environmentally safe.

Similar, government-sponsored certification programs also

exist in Canada (Environmental Choice) and Japan (Eco-

mark). See also Environmental advertising and marketing;

Green Cross; Green Seal

Blue revolution (fish farming)

The blue revolution has been brought about in part by a

trend towards more healthy eating which has increased the

consumption of fish. Additionally, the supply of wild fish

is declining, and some

species

, such as cod, striped sea

bass,

salmon

, haddock, and flounder, have already been

overfished.

Aquaculture

, or fish farming, appears to be a

solution to the problems created by the law of supply and

demand. Farm-raised fish currently account for about 15%

of the market. There are 93 species of fin fish, seven species

of shrimp, and six species of crawfish, along with numerous

species of clams, oysters and shellfish that are currently being

farm raised worldwide.

There are five central components to all fish farming

operations: fish, water supply, nutrition, management and

a contained method. Ideally, every aspect of the fishes’

envi-

ronment

is scientifically controlled by the farmer. The qual-

ity of the water should be constantly monitored and adjusted

for

and numerous other factors, including oxygen con-

tent. Adequate water circulation is also necessary to insure

169

that waste matter does not accumulate in the cages, for this

can lead to outbreaks of disease. The fish are fed formulated

diets that contain only enough protein for optimal growth.

They are fed regulated amounts that vary according to stage

of development, water temperature, and the availability of

naturally occurring food in their

habitat

Herbicides are used on a regular basis to control any

unwanted aquatic vegetation and to prevent fouling of cages.

Vaccines are routinely given to the fish to prevent disease,

although their effectiveness against most pathogens has yet

to be determined. Antibiotics are routinely placed in the

food that is fed to farm raised fish, a practice which many

have questioned. When given over a prolonged period of

time, antibiotics can result in higher incidences of disease

because bacterial strains develop

resistance

to them.

Fish that are raised on farms mature in rearing units

that are frequently located on shore. These on shore units

are typically ponds, large circular tanks or concrete enclo-

sures. Many types of freshwater fin fish are raised in pond

systems. Ponds that are easy to harvest, drain and refill are

the most economical. Walleye, perch and northern pike are a

few of the cool-water species that are raised in pond cultures.

Warm-water species such as catfish, carp, and tilapia are

also common. A few cold water species, especially trout and

salmon, can also be raised in pond systems. Most pond

systems are

monoculture

nature

, so only one type of

fish is raised in each pond.

Silos, raceways, and circular pools are commonly used

in fish farming. These are popular because they require a

small land base in comparison with most other systems.

Trout and salmonoid species are frequently raised in race-

ways, which are rectangular enclosures usually made of ce-

ment, fiberglass or metal, and positioned in a series so that

water flows from one into the next. Circular pools are shallow

with a center drain. They are easy to clean and maintain,

since the growth of aquatic vegetation is usually minimal.

Silos are very deep, circular tanks that are similar to silos

used for grain storage on traditional farms.

All on shore fish farming operations use large quanti-

ties of water, and their operations are either open or closed

systems. In open systems the water is used only once, flowing

into a pool or through a series of pools before being dis-

charged into a

drainage

ditch, creek, or river. Open systems

are used whenever possible because they are relatively inex-

pensive. In most cases, farmers are not required to treat the

water before it is discharged, which poses an environmental

hazard because the organic fish wastes, the residues of medi-

cations, and the herbicides used in the operation enter the

water supply unchecked.

Closed systems are not popular among fish farmers

because they are very expensive to build, maintain and oper-

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Blue-baby syndrome

ate. In a closed system used water is treated and then reused

in the farming operation. The treatment process can include

disinfection, removal of organic wastes that have dissolved

in the water, and reaeration. The closed system is more

environmentally sound than the open systems.

Coastal lakes and estuaries are the most frequently

used off-shore sites for rearing units, but it is becoming

more common to see units located at sea. There are four

basic types of cages used for off-shore fish-farming opera-

tions. They are fixed, floating, submersible, and submerged.

Fixed cages are made of net or webbing material and sup-

ported by posts that are anchored in the river bottom. Float-

ing cages, also known as net pens, are the most common

type of cage used. Developed in Norway, they are made of

net or rigid mesh and are supported by a buoyant collar.

Submersible cages have a frame which enables them to hold

their shape made of net or rigid mesh and are supported by

a buoyant collar. Submerged cages are usually made of wood

and anchored in place.

One major concern about off-shore nets and pens is

that they tend to attract marine birds and mammals, which

attempt to get at the fish with often fatal results. Fish farmers

currently use wire barriers and electrical devices to discourage

predators and these devices have killed

sea lions

. A typical

four-acre salmon farm holds 75,000 fish, and the amount

organic waste

produced is equal to that of a town with

20,000 people. Waste matter then settles on the ocean floor,

where it disrupts the normal

ecosystem

. Accumulated

wastes kill clams, oysters and other shellfish, and also causes

a proliferation of algae,

fungi

, and

parasites

, as well as

plankton

bloom. Plankton bloom is dangerous to sea life

and to humans. In order to control the algae and plankton

farmers treat the fish and the water with numerous

chemi-

cals

such as

copper

sulfate and formalin. These chemicals

do not act exclusively on algae, killing many other beneficial

forms of aquatic life and disrupting the ecological balance.

According to the

Sierra Club

Legal Defense Fund, the pens

qualify as point sources of

pollution

and should fall under

the

Clean Water Act

. At this point in time, however, the

pens do not come under the jurisdiction of the act.

Many fish on farms are raised from eggs imported

from other areas. Farm-raised fish can and do escape from

their pens, causing havoc with local ecosystems. The inter-

breeding of imported fish with indigenous species can alter

the genetic traits that allow the indigenous species to survive

in that particular location. Farm-raised stock that escapes

and reproduces may also compete with native species, re-

sulting in the decline of wild fish in that particular area. Off

the coast of Norway for example, the offspring of escaped

farm-raised salmon outnumber the indigenous species.

There are many questions about health and nutrition

that may affect consumers of farm-raised fish. Fish farmers

170

frequently use large quantities of medications to keep the

fish healthy and there are concerns over the effects that

these medications have on human health. Possible side

effects of eating farm-raised fish on a regular basis include

allergic reactions, increased incidence of infections by

resistant bacterial strains, and suppressed immune system

response. If eaten by pregnant women there is evidence

of fetal damage, discoloration of infants teeth, and abnor-

mal bone growth. Omega-3 fatty acids are a beneficial

part of our diet and they are present in the flesh of wild

salmon and in some other fish, but not in their farm-

raised counterparts. Recent studies have found that farm-

raised salmon and catfish contained twice the amount of

fat found in wild species. Other comparative nutritional

studies are currently underway.

Fish farming is a relatively new industry that shows

a lot of potential, but there are many environmental and

health questions that need to be addressed. Monitoring

of the industry is virtually non-existent. In the United

States, the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (JSA) has

made recommendations for additional studies of the indus-

try including the environmental impact of fish farming.

JSA has pointed out the need for extensive research into

the life cycle of parasites and diseases that

plague

fish.

They have recommended drug and chemical testing as

well as registration procedures. In the 1983 report issued

by JSA every aspect of the farming operation was cited

as needing additional studies. See also Agricultural pollution;

Algal bloom; Aquatic chemistry; Aquatic weed control;

Commercial fishing; Feedlot runoff; Marine pollution;

Water quality standards

[Debra Glidden]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Beveridge, M. Cage Aquaculture. Farham, England: Fishing News

Books, 1987.

Brown, E. E. World Fish Farming: Cultivation and Economics. Westport,

CT: Avi Publishing Company, 1983.

ERIODICALS

Fischetti, M. “A Feast of Gene-Splicing Down on the Fish Farm.” Science

253 (2 August 1991): 512-3.

Blue-baby syndrome

Blue-baby syndrome (or infant cyanosis) occurs in infants

who drink water with a high concentration of nitrate or are

fed formula prepared with water containing high nitrate

levels. Excess nitrate can result in methemoglobinemia, a

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Murray Bookchin

condition in which the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood

is impaired by an

oxidizing agent

such as nitrite, which

can be reduced from nitrate by bacterial

metabolism

in the

human mouth and stomach. Infants in the first three to six

months of life, especially those with diarrhea, are particularly

susceptible to nitrite-induced methemoglobinemia.

Adults convert about 10% of ingested

nitrates

into

nitrites

, and excess nitrate is excreted by the kidneys. In

infants, however, nitrate is transformed to nitrite with almost

100% efficiency. The nitrite and remaining nitrate are ab-

sorbed into the body through the intestine. Nitrite in the

blood reacts with hemoglobin to form methemoglobin,

which does not transport oxygen to the tissues and body

organs. The skin of the infant appears blue due to the lack

of oxygen in the blood supply, which may lead to asphyxia,

or suffocation.

Normal methemoglobin levels in humans range from

1 to 2%; levels greater than 3% are defined as methemoglo-

binemia. Methemoglobinemia is rarely fatal, readily diag-

nosed, and rapidly reversible with clinical treatment.

In adults, the major source of nitrate is dietary, with

only about 13% of daily intake from drinking water. Nitrates

occur naturally in many foods, especially vegetables, and are

often added to meat products as preservatives. Only a few

cases of methemoglobinemia have been associated with foods

high in nitrate or nitrite. Nitrate is also found in air, but

the daily respiratory intake of nitrate is small compared with

other sources. Nearly all cases of the disease have resulted

from ingestion by infants of nitrate in private well water

that has been used to prepare infant formula. Levels of nitrate

of three times the Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)

and above have been found in drinking water

wells

in ag-

ricultural areas. Federal MCL standards apply to all public

water systems, though they are unenforceable recommenda-

tions. Insufficient data are available to determine whether

subtle or chronic toxic effects may occur at levels of exposure

below those that produce clinically obvious toxicity. If water

has or is suspected to have high nitrate concentrations, it

should not be used for infant feeding, nor should pregnant

women or nursing mothers be allowed to drink it.

Domestic water supply wells may become contami-

nated with nitrate from mineralization of

soil

organic

nitro-

gen

septic tank

systems, and some agricultural practices,

including the use of fertilizers and the disposal of animal

wastes. Since there are many potential sources of nitrates in

groundwater

, the prevention of nitrate contamination is

complex and often difficult.

Nitrates and nitrites

can be removed from drinking

water using several types of technologies. The

Environmen-

tal Protection Agency

(EPA) has designated reverse osmo-

171

sis, anion exchange, and electrodialysis as the

Best Available

Control Technology

(BAT) for the removal of nitrate, while

recommending reverse osmosis and anion exchange as the

BAT for nitrite. Other technologies can be used to meet

MCLs for nitrate and nitrite if they receive approval from

the appropriate state regulatory agency.

[Judith L. Sims]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Clark, R. M. “Water Supply.” In Standard Handbook of Environmental

Engineering, ed. R. A. Corbitt. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990.

Lappensbusch, W. L. Contaminated Drinking Water and Your Health. Alex-

andria, VA: Lappensbusch Environmental Health, 1986.

ERIODICALS

Pontius, F. W. “New Standards Protect Infants from Blue Baby Syndrome.”

Opflow 19 (1993): 5.

BMP

see

Best management practices

BOD

see

Biochemical oxygen demand

Bogs

see

Wetlands

Bonn Convention

see

Convention on the Conservation of

Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979)

Murray Bookchin (1921 – )

American social critic, environmentalist, and writer

Born in New York in 1921, Bookchin is a writer, social

critic, and founder of “social ecology.” He has had a long

and abiding interest in the

environment

, and as early as

the 1950s he was concerned with the effects of human actions

on the environment. In 1951 he published an article entitled

“The Problem of Chemicals,” which exposed the detrimental

effects of

chemicals

nature

and on human health. This

work predates

Rachel Carson’s

famous Silent Spring by over

10 years.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Norman E. Borlaug

Murray Bookchin. (Photograph by Debbie Bookchin.

Reproduced by permission.)

In developing his theory of

social ecology

, Bookchin

makes the basic point that “you can’t have sound ecological

practices in nature without having sound social practices in

society. Harmony in society means harmony with nature.”

Bookchin describes himself as an anarchist, contending that

“there is a natural relationship between natural

ecology

and

anarchy.”

Bookchin has long been a critic of modern cities: his

widely read and frequently quoted Crisis in Our Cities (1965)

examines urban life, questioning “the lack of standards in

judging the modern metropolis and the society that fosters

its growth.” His The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of

Citizenship (1987) continues the critique by advancing green

ideas as a new municipal agenda for the 1990s and the next

century. Though he is often mentioned as one of its founding

thinkers, Bookchin is an ardent critic of

deep ecology

.He

states: “Bluntly speaking, deep ecology, despite all its social

rhetoric, has no real sense that our ecological problems have

their roots in society and in social problems.” Bookchin

instead reaffirms a social ecology that is, first of all “social,”

incorporating people into the calculus needed to solve envi-

ronmental problems, “avowedly rational,” “revolutionary, not

merely ’radical,’” and “radically” green.

[Gerald L. Young]

172

ESOURCES

OOKS

Bookchin, Murray. Toward an Ecological Society. Montreal: Black Rose

Books, 1980.

———. The Ecology of Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy.

Palo Alto, CA: Cheshire Books, 1982.

———. Remaking Society: Pathways to a Green Future. Boston: South End

Press, 1990.

Clark, J. “The Social Ecology of Murray Bookchin.” In The Anarchist

Moment. Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1984.

ERIODICALS

Bookchin, Murray. “Social Ecology Versus Deep Ecology.” Socialist Review

18 (1988): 9–29.

Boreal forest

see

Taiga

Norman E. Borlaug (1914 – )

American environmental activist

Borlaug, known as the father of the “green revolution” or

agricultural revolution

, was born on March 25, 1914, on

a small farm near Cresco, Iowa. He received a B.S. in forestry

in 1937 followed by a master’s degree in 1940 and a Ph.D.

in 1941 in

plant pathology

all from the University of Min-

nesota.

Agriculture is an activity of humans with profound

impact on the

environment

. Traditional cereal grain pro-

duction methods in some countries have led to recurrent

famine

. Food in these countries can be increased either by

expansion of land area under cultivation or by enhancement

of crop yield per unit of land. In many developing countries,

little if any space for agricultural expansion remains, hence

interest is focused on increasing cereal grain yield. This is

especially true with regard to wheat, rice, and maize.

Borlaug is associated with the green revolution which

was responsible for spectacular increases in grain production.

He began working in Mexico in 1943 with the Rockefeller

Foundation and the International Maize and Wheat Im-

provement Center in an effort to increase food crop produc-

tion. As a result of these efforts, wheat production doubled

in the decade after World War II, and nations such as

Mexico, India, and Pakistan became exporters of grain rather

than importers. Increased yields of wheat came as the result

of high genetic yield potential, enhanced disease

resistance

(Mexican wheat was vulnerable to stem rust fungus), respon-

siveness to fertilizers, the use of pesticides, and the develop-

ment of dwarf varieties with stiff straw and short blades that

resist lodging, i.e., do not grow tall and topple over with

the use of

fertilizer

. Further, the new varieties could be used

in different parts of the world because they were unaffected

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Boston Harbor clean up

Norman Borlaug. (Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by

permission.)

by different daylight periods. Mechanized threshing is now

replacing the traditional treading out of grain with large

animals followed by winnowing because these procedures

are slow and leave the grain harvest vulnerable to rain dam-

age. Thus, modern threshers are an essential part of the

green revolution.

Borlaug demonstrated that the famine so characteristic

of many developing countries could be controlled or elimi-

nated at least with respect to the population of the world

at that time. However, respite from famine and poverty is

only temporary as the world population relentlessly continues

to increase. The sociological and economic conditions which

have historically precipitated famine have not been abro-

gated. Thus, famine will appear again if human population

expansion continues unabated despite efforts of the green

revolution. Further, critics of Borlaug’s agricultural revolu-

tion cite the possibility of crop vulnerability because of ge-

netic uniformity—development of crops with high-yield po-

tential have eliminated other varieties, thus limiting

biodiversity

. High-yield crops have not proven themselves

hardier in several cases; some varieties are more vulnerable

to molds and storage problems. In the meantime, other,

hardier varieties are now nonexistent. The environmental

effects of fertilizers, pesticides, and energy-dependent mech-

anized modes of cultivation to sustain the newly developed

173

crops have also provoked controversy. Such methods are

expensive for poorer countries and sometimes create more

problems than they solve. For now, however, food from

the green revolution saves lives and the benefits currently

outweigh liabilities.

At the presentation of the Nobel Peace Prize to Bor-

laug in 1970, the president of Norway’s Lating honored

him, saying “more than any other single person of this age,

he has helped to provide bread for a hungry world.” His

alma mater, the University of Minnesota, celebrated his

career accomplishments with the award of a Doctor of Sci-

ence (honoris causa) degree in 1984, as have many other

academic institutions throughout a grateful world.

In 1992, the Agricultural Council of Experts (ACE)

was formed to advise Borlaug and former President Jimmy

Carter on information concerning Africa’s agricultural and

economic issues. They created a model that has since been

incorporated into the Global 2000 program, which addresses

the African food crisis by experimenting with production

test plots (PTPs) in an attempt to extract greater crop yields.

[Robert G. McKinnell]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Wilkes, H. Garrison. “The Green Revolution.” In McGraw-Hill Encyclope-

dia of Food, Agriculture & Nutrition, edited by D. N. Lapedes. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1977.

THER

Transcript of Proceedings for the Nobel Prize for Peace, 1970 (Speech by

Ms. Aase Lionaes, President of the Lagting, December 11, 1970 and

Lecture by Norman E. Borlaug on the Occasion of the Award of the Nobel

Peace Prize for 1970, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1970).

Boston Harbor clean up

Like many harbors near cities along the eastern seaboard,

the Boston Harbor in Massachusetts has been used for centu-

ries as a receptacle for raw and partially treated sewage from

the city of Boston and surrounding towns. In the late 1800s,

Boston designed a sewage and stormwater collection system.

This sewage system combined millions of gallons of un-

treated sewage from homes, schools, hospitals, factories, and

other buildings with stormwater collected from streets dur-

ing periods of moderate to heavy rainfall. The combined

sewage and stormwater collected in the sewage system was

discharged untreated to Boston Harbor on outgoing tides.

Sewage from communities surrounding Boston was also

piped to Boston’s collection system and discharged to Boston

Harbor and the major rivers leading to it: the Charles, Mys-

tic, and Neponset Rivers. Many of the sewage pipes, tunnels,

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Boston Harbor clean up

and other infrastructure built in the late 1800s and early

1900s are still in use today.

In the 1950s, the City of Boston was concerned with

growing health risks of swimming in and eating shellfish

harvested from Boston Harbor as well as odors and aesthetic

concerns that resulted from discharging raw sewage into

Harbor waters. The city built two advanced primary

sewage

treatment

plants during the 1950s and 1960s on two islands

located in Boston Harbor. The first sewage treatment plant

was built on Nut Island; it treated approximately 110 million

gal/per day (416 million l/per day). The second sewage treat-

ment plant was built on Deer Island; it treated approximately

280 million gal/per day (1060 million l/per day). The two

sewage treatment plants removed approximately half the

total suspended solids and 25% of the biological oxygen

demand found in raw sewage. The outgoing tide in Boston

Harbor was still used to flush the treated

wastewater

and

approximately 50 tons (46 metric tons) per day of sewage

sludge

(also called biosolids), which was produced as a

byproduct of the advanced primary treatment process. The

sewage sludge forms from solids in the sewage settling in

the bottom of tanks.

During the 1960s, the resources devoted to main-

taining the City’s aging sewage system decreased. As a result,

the sewage treatment plants, pipes, pump stations, tunnels,

interceptors, and other key components of Boston’s sewage

infrastructure began to fall into disrepair. Equipment break-

downs, sewer line breaks, and other problems resulted in

the

discharge

of raw and partially treated sewage to Boston

Harbor and the rivers leading to it. During this time, the

Metropolitan District Commission (MDC) was the agency

responsible for sewage collection, treatment, and disposal.

In 1972, the United States Congress enacted the

Clean

Water Act

. This was landmark legislation to improve the

quality of our nation’s waters. The Clean Water Act required

that sewage discharged to United States waters must meet

secondary treatment levels by 1977. Secondary treatment of

sewage means that at least 85% of total suspended solids and

85% of biological oxygen demand is removed from sewage.

Instead of working towards meeting this federal require-

ment, the MDC requested a waiver from this new obligation

from the United States

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA). In 1983, the EPA denied the waiver request. The

MDC responded by modifying its waiver request to promise

that the city would construct a 9.2 mi (14.8 km) outfall to

achieve increased dilution of the sewage by discharging to

deeper, more flushed waters. As part of its waiver, MDC

also promised an end to discharging sewage sludge in the

harbor and initiation of a combined sewer overflow abate-

ment project to cease flow into Boston Harbor from 88

overflow pipes. In 1985, EPA denied the second waiver

request.

174

During EPA’s consideration of Boston’s waiver re-

quest, in 1982, the City of Quincy filed a lawsuit against

the MDC for violating the Clean Water Act. In 1983, the

Conservation Law Foundation filed two lawsuits; one was

against MDC for violating the Clean Water Act and the

other was against EPA for not fully implementing the Clean

Water Act by failing to get Boston to comply with the law.

The Massachusetts legislature responded to these pressures

by replacing the MDC with the Massachusetts

Water Re-

sources

Authority (MWRA) in 1984. The MWRA was

created as an independent agency with the authority to raise

water and sewer rates to pay for upgrading and maintaining

the collection and treatment of the region’s sewage. The

following year, the federal court ruled that the MWRA must

come into compliance with the Clean Water Act. As a

result of this ruling, the MWRA developed a list of sewage

improvement projects that were necessary to upgrade the

existing sewage treatment system and clean up Boston

Harbor.

The Boston Harbor clean up consists of $3.4 billion

worth of sewage treatment improvements that include the

construction of a 1,270 million-gal/per day (4,800 million-

l/per day) primary sewage treatment plant, a 1,080 million-

gal/per day (4,080 million-l/per day) secondary sewage treat-

ment plant, a dozen sewage sludge digesters, disinfection

basins, a sewage screening facility, an underwater tunnel, a

9.5 mi-long (15.3 km) outfall pipe, 10 pumping stations, a

sludge-to-fertilizer facility, and combined sewer overflow

treatment facilities.

Today, approximately 370 million gallons/per day

(1,400 million l/per day) of sewage

effluent

from over 2.5

million residents and businesses is discharged to Boston

Harbor. Almost half the total flow is stormwater

runoff

from streets and

groundwater

infiltrating into cracked

sewer pipes. The combined sewage and stormwater is moved

through 5,400 mi (8,700 km) of pipes by gravity and with

the help of pumps. Five of the 10 pumps have already been

replaced. At least two of the pumping stations that were

replaced as part of the clean up effort dated back to 1895.

The sewage is pumped to Nut Island where more than

10,000 gal/per day (37,800 l/per day) of floatable

pollution

such as grease, oil, and plastic debris are now removed by

its new sewage screening facility. The facility also removes

any grit, sand, gravel, or large objects. A 4.8-mi (7.7-km)

long deep-rock tunnel will be used to transport screened

wastewater to Deer Island for further treatment.

One of the most significant changes that has occurred

as part of the Boston Harbor clean up project is the recon-

struction of Deer Island. Prior to 1989, Deer Island had

prison buildings, World War II army bunkers, and an aging

sewage treatment plant. All the old buildings and structures

have been removed and the island has been reshaped to

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Botanical garden

accommodate 12 massive sewage sludge digesters, 60 acres

(24.2 ha) of a new primary sewage treatment plant, and a new

secondary treatment facility. The primary sewage treatment

plant has reduced the amount of suspended solids discharged

to Boston Harbor from 138–57 tons per day (126–52 met-

ric tons).

The secondary sewage treatment plant on Deer Island

is still under construction. It will use settling tanks, as are

found in primary sewage treatment plants, as well as

micro-

organisms

, which will consume organic matter in the sew-

age thereby increasing treatment levels. Secondary treatment

of Boston’s sewage will result in an increase in removal of

total suspended solids from 50–90% and biological oxygen

demand from 25–90%. The first phase of the secondary

treatment plant construction was completed by the end of

1997.

After the sewage is treated and disinfected to remove

any remaining pathogens (disease-causing organisms), the

effluent is discharged through a 9.5 mi (15.3 km) long outfall

tunnel into the waters of Massachusetts Bay. Massive tunnel

boring machines were used to drill the tunnel below the

ocean floor. The outfall has 55 diffuser pipes connected at

right angles to it along the last 1.25 mi (2.01 km) of the

outfall. The diffuser pipes will increase dispersion of the

treated sewage in the receiving waters. The tunnel was

opened in September of 2000.

The outfall has been a source of controversy for many

residents of Cape Cod and for the users of Massachusetts

Bay and the Gulf of Maine. There is concern about the

long-term impact of contaminants from the treated sewage

on the area, which is used for

transportation

recreation

fishing, and tourism. Some alternatives to the sewage treat-

ment plant and the 9.5-mi (15.3-km) long outfall pipe were

developed by civil engineers at the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology. The alternatives included modifications to

the advanced primary treatment facility and a smaller sec-

ondary treatment facility with the effluent discharged to

Boston Harbor. Because there was not enough evidence to

convince EPA that

water quality standards

would always

be met in the harbor, EPA rejected the alternatives.

As part of the Boston Harbor clean up, sewage sludge

is no longer discharged to the harbor. Twelve sewage sludge

digesters in Deer Island were constructed in 1991. The

digesters break down the sewage sludge by using microor-

ganisms such as bacteria. Different types of microorganisms

are used in the sewage sludge digestion process than in

the secondary treatment process. As the microorganisms

consume the sewage sludge,

methane

gas is produced which

is used for heat and power. Prior to 1991, all the sewage

sludge was discharged to Boston Harbor. Since 1991, the

sewage sludge has been shipped to a facility that converts

the digested sewage sludge into

fertilizer

175

The sludge-to-fertilizer facility dewaters the sludge

and uses rotating, high temperature dryers that produce fer-

tilizer pellets with 60% organic matter, and important nutri-

ents such as

nitrogen

phosphorus

, calcium, sulfur, and

iron. The fertilizer is marketed in bulk and also sold as Bay

State Organic, which is sold locally for use on

golf courses

and landscape.

This massive undertaking to clean up the harbor by

upgrading its sewage treatment facilities is one of the world’s

largest public works projects. Over 80% of the Boston Har-

bor clean up is completed. These changes have resulted in

measurable improvements to Boston Harbor. The harbor

sustains a $10 million lobster fishery annually as well as

flounder, striped bass, cod, bluefish, and smelt recreational

fisheries.

[Marci L. Bortman Ph.D.]

ESOURCES

OOKS

National Research Council. Managing Wastewater in Coastal Urban Areas.

Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1993.

ERIODICALS

Aubrey, D. G., and M. S. Connor. “Boston Harbor Fallout Over the

Outfall.” Oceanus 36:1, (Spring 1993).

Levy, P. F. “Sewer Infrastructure: An Orphan of Our Times.” Oceanus

36:1, (Spring 1993).

Botanical garden

A botanical garden is a place where collections of plants

are grown, managed, and maintained. Plants are normally

labeled and available for scientific study by students and

observation by the public. An arboretum is a garden com-

posed primarily of trees, vines and shrubs. Gardens often

preserve collections of stored seeds in special facilities re-

ferred to as seed banks. Many gardens maintain special col-

lections of preserved plants, known as herbaria, used to

identify and classify unknown plants. Laboratories for the

scientific study of plants and classrooms are also common.

Although landscape gardens have been known for as

long as 4,000 years, gardens intended for scientific study

have a more recent origin. Kindled by the need for herbal

medicines in the sixteenth century, gardens affiliated with

Italian medical schools were founded in Pisa about 1543,

and Padua in 1545. The usefulness of these medicinal gar-

dens was soon evident, and similar gardens were established

in Copenhagen, Denmark (1600), London, England (1606),

Paris, France (1635), Berlin, Germany (1679), and else-

where. The early European gardens concentrated mainly

species

with known medical significance. The plant

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Kenneth Ewart Boulding

collections were put to use to make and test medicines and

to train students in their application.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, gardens

evolved from traditional herbal collections to facilities with

broader interests. Some gardens, notably the Royal Botanic

Gardens at Kew, near London, played a major role in spread-

ing the cultivation of commercially important plants such

as coffee (Coffea arabica),

rubber

(Hevea spp.), banana

(Musa paradisiaca), and tea (Thea sinensis) from their places

of origin to other areas with an appropriate

climate

. Other

gardens focused on new varieties of horticultural plants. The

Leiden garden in Holland, for instance, was instrumental

in stimulating the development of the extensive worldwide

Dutch bulb commerce. Many other gardens have had an

important place in the scientific study of plant diversity

as well as the introduction and assessment of plants for

agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and medicine.

The total number of botanical gardens in the world

can only be estimated, but not all plant collections qualify

for the designation because they are deemed to lack serious

scientific purpose. A recent estimate places the number of

botanical gardens and arboreta at 1,400. About 300 of those

are in the United States. Most existing gardens are located

in the North Temperate Zone, but there are important gar-

dens on all continents except

Antarctica

. Although the trop-

ics are home to the vast majority of all plant species, until

recently, relatively few gardens were located there. A recog-

nition of the need for further study of the diverse tropical

flora

has led to the establishment of many new gardens.

An estimated 230 gardens are now established in the tropics.

In recent years botanical gardens throughout the world

have united to address increasing threats to the planet’s flora.

The problem is particularly acute in the tropics, where as

many as 60,000 species, nearly one-fourth of the world’s

total, risk

extinction

by the year 2050. Botanical gardens

have organized to produce, adopt and implement a Botanic

Gardens Conservation Strategy to help deal with the di-

lemma. See also Conservation; Critical habitat; Ecosystem;

Endangered species; Forest decline; Organic gardening and

farming

[Douglas C. Pratt]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Bramwell, D., O. Hamann, V. Heywood, H. Synge. Botanic Gardens and

the World Conservation Strategy. London: Academic Press, 1987.

Hyams, E. S., and W. MacQuitty. Great Botanical Gardens of the World.

New York: Macmillan, 1969.

Wyman, D. The Arboretums and Botanical Gardens of North America. Jamaica

Plain, MA: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 1947.

176

Kenneth Ewart Boulding (1910 – 1993)

English economist, social scientist, writer, and peace ac-

tivist

Kenneth Boulding is a highly respected economist, educator,

author, and pacifist. In an essay in Frontiers in Social Thought:

Essays in Honor of Kenneth E. Boulding (1976), Cynthia Earl

Kerman described Boulding as “a person who grew up in

the poverty-stricken ’inner city’ of Liverpool, broke through

the class system to achieve an excellent education, had both

scientific and literary leanings, became a well-known Ameri-

can economist, then snapped the bonds of economics to

extend his thinking into wide-ranging fields—a person who

is a religious mystic and a poet as well as a social scientist.”

A major recurring theme in Boulding’s work is the

need—and the quest—for an integrated social science, even

a unified science. He does not see the disciplines of human

knowledge as distinct entities, but rather a unified whole

characterized by “a diversity of methodologies of learning

and testing.” For example, Boulding is a firm advocate of

adopting an ecological approach to economics, asserting that

ecology

and economics are not independent fields of study.

He has identified five basic similarities between the two

disciplines: 1) both are concerned not only with individuals,

but individuals as members of

species

; 2) both have an

important concept of dynamic equilibrium; 3) a system of

exchange among various individuals and species is essential

in both ecological and economic systems; 4) both involve

some sort of development—succession in ecology and

popu-

lation growth

and capital accumulation in economics; 5)

both involve distortion of the equilibrium of systems by

humans in their own favor.

“If my life philosophy can be summed up in a sen-

tence,” Boulding stated, “it is that I believe that there is

such a thing as human betterment—a magnificent, multi-

dimensional, complex structure—a cathedral of the mind—

and I think human decisions should be judged by the extent

to which they promote it. This involves seeing the world as

a total system.” Boulding’s views have been influential in

many fields, and he has helped environmentalists reassess

and redefine their role in the larger context of science and

economics.

[Gerald L. Young Ph.D.]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Boulding, K. E. “Economics As an Ecological Science.” In Economics As

a Science. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.

———. Collected Papers. Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press,

1971.

Kerman, C. E. Creative Tension: The Life and Thought of Kenneth Boulding.

Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1974.