Environmental Encyclopedia

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Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Bycatch reduction devices

Pacific Ocean fishery killed more than 100,000 dolphins a

year. That number dropped to an estimated 20,000 after

1972, when the Marine Mammals Protection Act was

passed. By 1989, the number was estimated at 12,643, largely

because the number of boats in the U.S. tuna fishing fleet

declined and those that were in operation killed fewer dol-

phins. U.S. fishing boats are now required to use techniques

that allow dolphins to escape from tuna nets before the catch

is hauled in. These include having fishermen jump into the

ocean to hold the lip of the net below the water surface so

the dolphin can jump out.

[David Clarke]

197

ESOURCES

OOKS

Decline of the Sea Turtles, Causes and Prevention. Washington, D.C.: Na-

tional Academy Press, 1990.

Dolphins and the Tuna Industry. Washington, D.C.: National Academy

Press, 1992.

Managing the Nation’s Bycatch: Priorities, Programs and Actions for the Na-

tional Marine Fisheries Service. Washington, D.C.: National Marine Fisher-

ies Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. De-

partment of Commerce, March 20, 1997.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Cadmium

A metallic element that occurs most commonly in

nature

as the sulfide, CdS. Cadmium has many important industrial

applications. It is used to electroplate other metals, in the

production of paints and

plastics

, and in nickel-cadmium

batteries. The metal also escapes into the

environment

during the burning of

coal

and

tobacco

. Cadmium is ubiq-

uitous in the environment, with detectable amounts present

in nearly all water, air, and food samples. In high doses,

cadmium is toxic. In lower doses, it may cause kidney disease,

disorders of the circulatory system, weakening of bones, and,

possibly,

cancer

. See also Itai-Itai disease

CAFE

see

Corporate Average Fuel Economy

standards

Cairo conference

The 1994 International Conference on Population and De-

velopment occurs at a defining moment in the history of

international cooperation, the preamble to the Program of

Action for the United Nations International Conference

on Population and Development (UN ICPD) stated. This

historic conference, the fifth such world meeting regarding

population issues, was held in Cairo, Egypt September 5th

to 13th, 1994, at a time when there was growing, world-

wide recognition of the interdependence between global

population, development and

environment

. The Cairo

Conference considered itself as building upon the foundation

already laid in the 1974 World Population Conference in

Bucharest and the 1984 International Conference on Popu-

lation in Mexico City.

Representatives from 180 countries throughout the

world gathered to discuss these problems. In order to repre-

sent particular world societal blocs, the UN ensured repre-

199

sentation from four communities of nations: developing

countries, Muslim states, the industrialized West, and Cath-

olic countries. The makeup of attending blocs was inten-

tional, as controlling the world’s population involves many

hotly debated issues that bring about sharp differences of

opinion on religious and cultural beliefs. Conference atten-

dees and those that would follow up on the conference’s

recommendations in their host nations would have to address

issues like marriage, divorce, abortion, contraception and

homosexuality.

The call to address

population growth

came at a

time when some groups said that the world was already

pushing its food supply to natural limits. For example, ma-

rine biologists stated that ocean fisheries could not sustain

catches upwards of 100 million tons of fish per year. Yet,

that level was reached in 1989. Seafood prices have continued

to rise since that time but seafood production has continued

and so has population growth. In many countries, under-

ground water supplies are reportedly strained and farming

has been exploited to its capacity. The world population was

estimated that year at 5.6 billion people, and projected to

continue to increase at the 1994 level of 86 million people

per year. Most frightening of all were the United Nations

population projections for the twenty years to follow. These

estimates ranged between 7.9 billion to 11.9 billion people

inhabiting the earth by 2014.

In his opening address on September 5, UN Secretary-

General Boutros-Boutros-Ghali said,

The efficacy of the

economic order of the planet on which we live de-

pended in great measure on the conference’s outcome.

Leaders of several countries spoke of the many issues sur-

rounding the problem and causing social and ethical dilem-

mas in setting population policy. Vice-President Albert Gore

of the United States spoke of a

holistic

approach that also

comprehensively addresses world poverty. Over the course

of six days, more than 200 speakers shared their concerns

about population and strategies to curb growth. Because the

conference was mandated to address the issues and how they

impacted population, the debate branched out to a number

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Cairo conference

of economic, reproductive, trade, environmental, family

structure, healthcare, and education issues.

The following areas of need were spelled out in the

UN ICPD

Programme of Action

Rapid urbanization and movement within and across bor-

ders are additional population problems the Cairo confer-

ence attempted to address. At that time, more than 93

percent of the 93 million people added to the population

each year lived in developing countries. UN data just prior

to the conference also showed that 43 percent of the world

population resided in urban areas, up from 38 percent

in 1975.

The conference’s delegates agreed on common objectives

for controlling the world’s population and even took on

a more ambitious goal of population growth limit than

anticipated by some. The conference objectives are targeted

for completion by the year 2015. The common strategy

limits family size and helps empower women to participate

in reproductive decisions.

The Cairo conference goals also addressed some

mortality

issues, and set an objective of reducing infant mortality

worldwide by 45%. In 1994, infant mortality averaged 62

per 1,000 live births. The conference’s objective aimed to

lower that number to only 12 per 1,000 live births.

A goal was also outlined to lower maternal mortality to

30 per 100,000 women. These objectives would be fur-

thered by a pledge to offer prenatal care to all pregnant

women.

The conference also included an objective addressing edu-

cation. It outlined that all children of school age be enabled

to complete primary education.

Contraception availability became another tool to limit

population growth. The delegates settled on a goal of mak-

ing contraception accessible to 70% of the world’s popula-

tion by the year 2015. However, they also added universal

access to

family planning

as a final objective.

In order to meet family planning goals, some leaders in

the field suggested a shift in how leaders looked at their

policies. Prior to the conference, they tended to focus on

organized family planning programs. The Cairo conference

objectives shifted the focus to a broadened policy, con-

cerned with issues like gender equality, education, and

empowerment of women to better deal with reproductive

choices.

The aging of the populations in more developed countries

was also discussed.

Although unprecedented agreement was reached over

the few days in Cairo, it didn’t happen without heated debate

and controversy. Most participants supported the notion that

population policies must be based on individual rights and

freedom of choice, as well as the rights of women and cul-

200

tures. Since abortion was considered such a sensitive issue,

many delegates agreed that family planning offered women

alternative recourse to abortion. The Cairo Conference

ended with both hope and concern for the future. If the

conference objectives were reached, the delegates projected

that world population would rise from 5.7 billion in the

mid-1990s to 7.5 billion by the year 2015, and then begin

to stabilize. However, if the objectives were not reached,

conference attendees concluded that the population would

continue to rise to the perilous numbers discussed in the

conferences preamble.

Following the Cairo conference, the United States

began implementing the conference objectives. The U.S.

Agency for International Development (USAID) held a se-

ries of meetings between September 1994 and January 1995

to draw upon the expertise and ideas of American leaders

in the field and to begin encouraging U.S. participation in

population control goals. Among the USAID’s own objec-

tives for the United States were new initiatives and expansion

of programs in place that emphasized family planning and

health, as well as education and empowerment of women

in America. For example, USAID suggested expanding ac-

cess to reproductive health information and services and

improved prevention of HIV/AIDS and other sexually trans-

mitted diseases (STDs). It also promoted research on male

methods of contraception and new barrier methods to pro-

tect from both pregnancy and STDs. The agency focused

on improving women’s equality and rights beginning with

review of existing U.S. programs. A major focus would also

include improving women’s economic equity in the United

States.

Such initiatives cost money. The U.S. Congress appro-

priated $527 million to family planning and reproductive

health in fiscal year 1995 alone. A number of additional

programs received substantial funding to support the eco-

nomic, social, and educational programs needed to complete

the United States’ objectives related to the Cairo conference.

Included in this overall program was establishment of the

President’s Council on

Sustainable Development

, a com-

bination public/private group charged with making recom-

mendations on U.S. policies and programs that will help

balance population growth with consumption of

natural

resources

. The United States also worked cooperatively

with Japan prior to and following the conference on a com-

mon agenda to coordinate population and health assistance

goals. The program also was designed to help strengthen

relations between Japan and the United States.

Five years after the Cairo conference, a follow-up con-

ference was held in New York City from June 30th to July

2nd, 1999. In preparation for the conference, a forum was

held at The Hague, Netherlands. At that forum, delegates

of several countries that had expressed concerns about the

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Dr. Helen Mary Caldicott

Cairo conference objectives five years earlier began trying

to renegotiate the program of action. By the time the

Cairo

Plus Five

conference convened in 1999, final recommenda-

tions had not been completed, as some member delegates,

including representatives of the Vatican in Rome, attempted

to alter the original Cairo program of action. Money was yet

another issue in focus at the 1999 meeting. United Nations

Population Fund (UNPFA) Chief Nafis Sadik estimated

that $5.7 billion per year was needed to meet the Cairo

Conference aims, an amount she described as

peanuts

. The

actual average amount available to the

Programme of Ac-

tion

was far less, $2.2 billion.

The real measure of success lies in whether or not

world population stabilizes. There is some evidence to sug-

gest that while still growing, the number of human beings

inhabiting this planet is not growing at the nightmare rates

projected at the beginning of the Cairo Conference. The

United States Bureau of Census projections, revised in 1999,

now estimate a world population of 8 billion by 2024, ap-

proximately the lowest estimate the Cairo Conference pro-

jected for 2014.

[Joan M. Schonbeck]

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

US Census BureauWorld Population Profile: 1998--Highlights (revised

March 18,1999)

United NationsProgramme of Action of the UN ICPD, Preamble

United Nations Chronicle, On-Line EditionPopulation, Progress and Pea-

nutsVol.XXXVI, Nov.3, 1999, Dept. of Information

“Focus on Population and Development: Follow-up on Cairo Confer-

ence.”US Department of State Dispatch6, no. 1 (January 2, 1995): 4.

“Cairo Conference Reaches Consensus on Plan to Stabilize World Growth

by 2015.”UN Chronicle31 (December 1994): 63.

RGANIZATIONS

Population Council, 1 Dag Hammarsrkjold Plz, New York, NY USA

10017 (212) 339-0500, Fax: (212) 755-6052, Email: pubinfo@popinfo.org,

<http://www.popcouncil.org>

United Nations, , New York, NY USA 10017 , <http://www.un.org>

Calcareous soil

A calcareous

soil

is soil that has calcium carbonate (CaCO

)

in abundance. If a calcareous soil has hydrochloric

acid

added to it, the soil will effervesce and give off

carbon

dioxide

and form bubbles because of the chemical reaction.

Calcareous soils are most often formed from limestone or

in dry environments where low rainfall prevents the soils

from being leached of carbonates. Calcareous soils frequently

cause

nutrient

deficiencies for many plants.

201

Dr. Helen Mary Caldicott (1938 – )

Australian physician and activist

Dr. Helen Caldicott is a pediatrician, mother, antinuclear

activist, and environmental activist. Born Helen Broinowski

in Melbourne,

Australia

on August 7, 1938, she is known

as a gifted orator and a tireless public speaker and educator.

She traces her activism to age 14 when she read Nevil Shute’s

On the Beach, a chilling novel about nuclear holocaust. In

1961 she graduated from the University of Adelaide Medical

School with bachelor of medicine and bachelor of surgery

degrees, which are the equivalent of an American M.D. She

married Dr. William Caldicott in 1962, and returned to

Adelaide, Australia to go into general medical practice. In

1966 she, her husband, and their three children moved to

Boston, Massachusetts, where she held a fellowship at Har-

vard Medical School. Returning to Australia in 1969, she

served first as a resident in pediatrics and then as an intern

in pediatrics at Queen Elizabeth Hospital. There, she set

up a clinic for cystic

fibrosis

, a genetic disease in children.

In the early 1970s, Caldicott led a successful campaign

in Australia to ban atmospheric nuclear testing by the French

in the South Pacific. Her success in inspiring a popular

movement to stop the French testing has been attributed to

her willingness to reach out to the Australian people through

letters and television and radio appearances, in which she

explained the dangers of

radioactive fallout

. Next, she led

a successful campaign to ban the exportation of

uranium

Australia. During that campaign she met strong

resistance

from Australia’s government, which had responded to the

1974 international

oil embargo

by offering to sell uranium

on the world market. (Uranium is the raw material for nu-

clear technology.) Caldicott chose to go directly to mine

workers, explaining the effects of radiation on their bodies

and their genes and talking about the effects of nuclear

war on them and their children. As a result, the Australian

Council of Trade Unions passed a resolution not to mine,

sell, or transport uranium. A ban was instituted from 1975

to 1982, when Australia gave in to international pressure to

resume the exportation.

In 1977 Dr. Caldicott and her husband immigrated to

the United States, accepting appointments at the Children’s

Hospital Medical Center and teaching appointments at Har-

vard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts. She was a

co-founder of Physicians for Social Responsibility (PSR),

and she was its president at the time of the March 28, 1979

nuclear accident at the

Three Mile Island Nuclear Reactor

in Pennsylvania. At that time, PSR was a small group of

concerned medical specialists. Following the accident, the

organization grew rapidly in membership, financial support,

and influence. As a result of her television appearances and

statements to the media following the Three Mile Island

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Lynton Keith Caldwell

accident, Caldicott became a symbol of the movement to

ban all

nuclear power

and oppose

nuclear weapons

any form. Ironically, she resigned as president of PSR in

1983, when the organization had grown to over 20,000

members. At that time, she began to be viewed as an extreme

radical in an organization that had become more moderate

as it came to represent a wide, diversified membership.

She also founded Women’s Action for Nuclear Disar-

mament (WAND). WAND has been an effective group

lobbying Congress against nuclear weapons.

Throughout her career, Caldicott has considered her

family to be her first priority. She has three children and

she emphasizes the importance of building and maintaining

a strong marriage, believing that good interpersonal relation-

ships are essential before a socially-minded person can work

effectively for broad social change.

Caldicott has developed videotapes and films and has

written over one hundred articles which have appeared in

major newspapers and magazines throughout the world. She

has written four books. Her first, Nuclear Madness: What

You Can Do (1978) is considered important reading in the

antinuclear movement. Her second, entitled Missile Envy,

was published in 1986. In If You Love This Planet: A Plan

to Heal the Earth (1992), Caldicott discusses the race to save

the planet from environmental damage resulting from excess

energy consumption,

pollution

ozone layer depletion

and global warming. She urges citizens of the United States

to follow the example set by the Australians, who have

adopted policies and laws designed to move their society

toward greater corporate and institutional responsibility. She

urges the various nations of the world to strive for a “new

legal world order” by moving toward a sort of transnational

control of the world’s

natural resources

. One of her books,

A Desperate Passion, (1996) is an autobiography in which

she reflects upon crucial events that have influenced her and

talks about people who have inspired her in her life and

work. Her latest work was entitled The New Nuclear Danger:

George Bush’s Military Industrial Complex (2002).

Caldicott is the recipient of many awards and prizes

including the SANE Peace Prize, the Ghandi Peace Prize,

the John-Roger Foundation’s Integrity Award (which she

shared with Bishop Desmond Tutu), the Norman Cousins

Award for Peace-making, the Margaret Mead Award, and

many others.

[Paulette L. Stenzel]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Caldicott, H. If You Love This Planet: A Plan to Heal the Earth. New York:

W. W. Norton, 1992.

———. Missle Envy. New York: Bantam Books, 1986.

202

Dr. Helen Caldicott. (Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by

permission.)

———. Nuclear Madness: What You Can Do. New York: Bantam Books,

1981.

———. The New Nuclear Danger: George Bush’s Military Industrial Complex.

The New Press, 2002.

Caldicott, H. A Desperate Passion. New York: Bantam Books, 1996.

ERIODICALS

Nixon, W. “Helen Caldicott: Practicing Global Preventive Medicine.” E

Magazine (September–October 1992): 12–5.

Lynton Keith Caldwell (1913 – )

American scholar and environmentalist

Lynton Caldwell has been a key figure in the development

environmental policy

in the United States. A longtime

advocate for adding an environmental amendment to the

Constitution, Caldwell has insisted that the federal govern-

ment has a duty to protect the

environment

that is akin to

the defense of civil rights or freedom of speech.

Caldwell was born November 21, 1913 in Montezuma,

Iowa. He received his bachelor of arts from the University

of Chicago in 1935 and completed a master of arts at Harvard

University in 1938. The same year, Caldwell accepted an

assistant professorship in government at Indiana University

in Bloomington. In 1943, he attained his doctorate from

the University of Chicago and began publishing academic

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

California condor

works the following year. The subjects of his early writings

were not environmental; he published a study of administra-

tive theory in 1944 and a study of New York state govern-

ment in 1954. By 1964, however, Caldwell had shifted his

emphasis, and he began to receive wide recognition for his

work on environmental policy. In that year, he was presented

with the William E. Mosher Award from the American

Society for Public Administration for his article “Environ-

ment: A New Focus for Public Policy.”

Caldwell’s most important accomplishment was his

prominent role in the drafting of the

National Environmen-

tal Policy Act

(NEPA) in 1969. As a consultant for the

Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs in 1968,

he prepared A Draft Resolution on a National Policy for the

Environment. His special report examined the constitutional

basis for a national environmental policy and proposed a

statement of intent and purpose for Congress. Many of the

concepts first introduced in this draft resolution were later

incorporated into the act. As consultant to that committee,

Caldwell played a continuing role in the shaping of the

NEPA, and he was involved in the development of the

environmental impact statement

In past years Caldwell has strongly defended the

NEPA, as well as the regulatory agency it created, claiming

that they represent “the first comprehensive commitment

of any modern state toward the responsible custody of its

environment.” Although the act has influenced policy deci-

sions at every level of government, the enforcement of its

provisions have been limited. Caldwell argues that this is

because environmental regulations have no clear grounding

in the law. Statutes alone are often unable to withstand

the pressure of economic interests. He has proposed an

amendment to the Constitution as the best practical solution

to this problem and he maintains that without such an

amendment, environmental issues will continue to be mar-

ginalized in the political arena.

In addition to advising the Senate during the creation

of the NEPA, Caldwell has done extensive work on interna-

tional environmental policy. He has advised the Central

Treaty Organization and served on special assignments in

countries including Colombia, India, the Philippines, and

Thailand. Currently, Caldwell serves as the Arthur F. Bent-

ley Professor of Political Science emeritus and professor of

public and environmental affairs at Indiana University in

Bloomington, Indiana.

[Douglas Smith]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Metzger, L., ed. “Caldwell, Lynton.” In Contemporary Authors New Revision

Series. Vol. 12. Detroit: Gale Research, 1984.

203

ERIODICALS

Caldwell, L. K. “20 Years with NEPA Indicate the Need.” Environment

31 (December 1989): 6–11, 25–28.

California condor

With a wingspan of over 9 ft (about 3 m), the California

condor (Gymnogyps californianus) has the largest wingspan

of any bird in North America. The condor is a

scavenger

It is a member of the New World vulture family (Catharti-

dae), and is closely related to the Andean condor found in

South America.

The California condor is an

endangered species

barely avoiding

extinction

. While the condor population

may have been in decline before the arrival of Europeans in

North America, increased settlement of its

habitat

hunt-

ing

, and indirect human influences (

pollution

, pesticides,

construction hazards such as power lines) have almost wiped

out the bird.

The condor was once found in much of North

America. Fossil records indicate that it lived from Florida

to New York in the East and British Columbia to Mexico

in the West. The condor’s range became more restricted

even before European settlers arrived in North America. By

the time Columbus arrived in North America (mid-fifteenth

century), the condor had already started its retreat west. At

the beginning of the twentieth century it could still be found

in southern California and Baja California (northern Mex-

ico), but by 1950 its range had been reduced to a strip of

about 150 mi (241 km) at the southern end of the San

Joaquin Valley in California.

In the 1940s, the

National Audubon Society

initi-

ated a census of the condor population and recorded approxi-

mately 60 birds. In the early 1960s, the population was

estimated at 42 birds. A 1966 survey found 51 condors, an

increase that may have been due to variability among the

sampling systems used. By the end of 1986 there were 24

condors alive, 21 of which were in captivity.

Direct and indirect human stressors are directly re-

sponsible for the decline in the condor population during

the past three centuries. California condors have been shot

by hunters and poisoned by bait set out to kill coyotes. Their

food has been contaminated with pesticides such as DDT

lead

from

lead shot

found in animal carcasses shot and

lost by hunters. The condor’s rarity has made their eggs a

valuable commodity for unscrupulous collectors. Original

food sources, such as mammoths and giant camels of the

Pleistocene era, have disappeared, but as cattle ranching and

sheep farming developed, carcasses of these animals have

become suitable substitutes. Habitat destruction and general

harassment reduced the condor’s range and population to a

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

John Baird Callicot

California condor (

Gymnogyps californianus

(Photograph by Roy Toft. Tom Stack & Associates. Repro-

duced by permission.)

point where intervention was necessary to halt the bird’s

rapid decline to extinction.

Most other large birds and mammals in North

America that lived during the late Pleistocene period have

become extinct. However, there is a small chance that with

intervention and restoration projects, the California condor

can be saved from extinction. As a result, after much debate,

the decision was made to remove all California condors from

the wild and initiate a captive breeding and reintroduction

program. The United States

Fish and Wildlife Service

together with the California Fish and Game Commission,

captured the last wild condor in April 1987.

The captive breeding program has thus far increased

the condor population dramatically. Condors nest only once

every two years and typically lay only one egg. By removing

the egg from the nest for laboratory incubation, the female

can be tricked into laying a replacement egg. This helps

accelerate the population increase.

In January 1992, a pair of California condors was

released into the wild. In October the male was found dead

of kidney failure after apparently drinking from a pool of

antifreeze in a parking lot near their sanctuary. Six additional

condors were released at the end of 1992. In 1994, the total

condor population consisted of nine wild condors and 66

birds in captivity. In 1995 another pair of captive birds was

released into the wild, and with the release of more birds

in following years, breeding pairs began to establish nest

sites. In 2001, an egg that was laid by captive condors in

the Los Angeles Zoo was placed in a condor nest in the

wild, and the chick hatched successfully, only to die a few

days later. The pair of condors then laid their own egg and

hatched the first wild chick in April 2002. This was the first

chick hatched in the wild in 18 years. As of April 2002,

204

there were 63 free-living condors in California and Arizona

and 18 more were awaiting release from field pens where

they were being acclimated to their natural habitat. The

captive population totaled 104 birds.

The California Condor Recovery Plan is a consortium

of private groups and public agencies. The goal of the recov-

ery plan is to have 150 condors in each of two separate

populations with at least 15 breeding pairs in each group.

However, there are significant obstacles to the recovery of

wild populations of California condors. These include con-

tinued pressure from development that causes accidents such

as collisions with power lines and

poisoning

by crude oil

from drilling operations that the birds mistake for pools of

water. Although the capture and release of this

species

working and the population of captive birds is growing, the

survival of the California condor in the wild is still in doubt.

Measures must be taken to reduce risks to wild birds from

man-made hazards.

[Eugene C. Beckham and Marie H. Bundy]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Darlington, D. In Condor Country: A Portrait of a Landscape, Its Denizens

and Its Defenders. New York: Henry Holt, 1991.

Snyder, N. F. R., and H. A. Snyder. “Biology and Conservation of the

California Condor.” In Current Ornithology, Vol. 6, edited by D. M. Power.

New York: Plenum, 1989.

ERIODICALS

Jurek, R. M. “An Historical Review of California Condor Recovery Pro-

grammes.” Vulture News 23 (1990):3–7.

Kiff, L. “To the Brink and Back: The Battle to Save the California Condor.”

Terra 28 (1990):6–18.

Willwerth, J. “Can They Go Home Again?” Time 139 (27 January

1992):56–57.

John Baird Callicot (1941 – )

American environmental philosopher

J. Baird Callicott is a founder and seminal thinker in the

modern field of environmental philosophy. He is best known

as the leading contemporary exponent of Aldo Leopold’s

land ethic

, not only interpreting Leopold’s original works

but also applying the reasoning of the land ethic to modern

resource issues such as

wilderness

designation and

biodiv-

ersity

protection.

Callicott’s 1987 edited volume, Companion to A Sand

County Almanac, is the first interpretive and critical discus-

sion of Leopold’s classic work. His 1989 collection of essays,

In Defense of the Land Ethic, explores the intellectual founda-

tions and development of Leopold’s ecological and philo-

sophical insights and their ultimate union in his later works.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Canadian Forest Service

In 1991 Callicott, with Susan L. Flader, introduced to the

public the best of Leopold’s remaining unpublished and

uncollected literary and philosophical legacy in a collection

entitled The River of the Mother of God and Other Essays by

Aldo Leopold

Since his contribution to the inaugural issue of the

journal Environmental Ethics in 1979, Callicott’s articles and

essays have appeared not only in professional philosophical

journals and a variety of scientific and technical periodicals,

but in a number of lay publications as well. He has contrib-

uted chapters to more than twenty books and is internation-

ally known as an author and speaker. Born in Memphis,

Tennessee, Callicott completed his Ph.D. in philosophy at

Syracuse University in 1971, and has since held visiting

professorships at a number of American universities. In 1971,

while teaching at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point,

Callicott designed and taught what is widely acknowledged

as the nation’s first course in

environmental ethics

.Heis

currently associate professor of Philosophy and Religion at

the University of North Texas. With respect to the major

value questions today in environmental ethics, Callicott’s

position can best be illustrated by his claim that there can

be no value without valuers. He thus recognizes the legiti-

macy of both instrumental and intrinsic valuation on the

part of a democracy of valuers, human and nonhuman.

Callicott perceives that we live today on the verge of

a profound paradigm shift concerning human interactions

with and attitudes toward the natural world. Much of his

current work aims at distilling and giving voice to this shift

and at articulating an ecologically accurate and philosophi-

cally valid concept of sustainability. This concept abandons

dualistic (man versus

nature

), ethnocentric (modern Eu-

roamerican), and static (e.g., wilderness frozen in time) ele-

ments of current thought in sustainability in favor of those

emphasizing dynamic human/nonhuman

mutualism

, both

ecosystem conservation

and in restoration. Through

careful management consistent with the best ecological in-

formation and theories, Callicott believes, humans can not

only protect but can and should enhance

ecosystem health

His ideas challenge modern conventional wisdom and could

radically alter much current theory in environmental philoso-

phy as well as affect practice in wilderness management and

economic development planning.

As one of a handful of scholars who launched the field

of environmental ethics as we know it today, and as one of

even fewer philosophers who have made their works accessi-

ble and pertinent not only to other academicians but to the

general public, J. Baird Callicott occupies an important place

in the history of modern philosophy. His work will undoubt-

edly continue to shape thinking on the ethical dimensions

of resource management decisions for generations to come.

[Ann S. Causey]

205

ESOURCES

OOKS

Callicott, J. B. Companion to A Sand County Almanac. Madison: University

of Wisconsin Press, 1987.

———. In Defense of the Land Ethic: Essays in Environmental Philosophy.

Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.

———. Nature in Asian Tradition of Thought: Essays in Environmental

Philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.

Campephilus principalis

see

Ivory-billed woodpecker

Canadian Forest Service

The Canadian

Forest Service

(CFS) is a federal government

agency with a responsibility to conduct research and analyze

information related to the sustainable use of the Canadian

forest resource. Because of the importance of the forest

industries to the Canadian economy, CFS is a department

with its own minister in the federal cabinet.

In Canada, provincial and territorial governments have

the responsibility for establishing allowable forest harvests

and establishing criteria for acceptable management plans

for provincial-crown land, which comprises the bulk of the

economic forest resource of the nation. CFS integrates with

relevant departments of the provinces and territories through

the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers.

CFS operates six forest research centers in the regions

of Canada, as well as two research institutes: the Petawawa

National Forestry Institute at Chalk River, Ontario, and

the Forest

Pest

Management Institute at Sault Ste. Marie,

Ontario. Collectively, these institutions and their staff com-

prise the major force in forestry-related research in Canada.

The Government of Canada has committed to the

practice of ecologically

sustainable forestry

, and CFS

works with other levels of government, industry, educational

institutions, and the public towards this end.

Research programs within CFS are diverse, and in-

clude activities related to tree anatomy, physiology, and pro-

ductivity, techniques of

biomass

and stand inventory, deter-

mination of site quality, and research of forest harvesting

practices, management practices aimed at increasing produc-

tivity and economic value, and forest pest management.

CFS also supports much of the

forest management

and research conducted within each of the provinces and

territories, through joint federal-provincial Forest Develop-

ment Agreements. CFS also supports much of the forestry

research conducted at Canadian universities through re-

search contracts and joint-awards programs with other gov-

ernment agencies and industry.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Canadian Parks Service

An important initiative, begun in 1992, is the Model

Forest Program under Canada’s Green Plan. The intent of

this program is to provide substantial support for innovative

forest management and research, conducted by integrated

teams of partners involving industry, all levels of government,

universities, non-government organizations, woodlot own-

ers, and other groups and citizenry. A major criterion for

success in the intense competition for funds towards a model

forest is that the consortium of proponents demonstrate a

vision of ecologically sustainable forest management, and a

likely capability of achieving that result.

CFS’s most recent endeavor is titles Forest 2020. This

project was established at the 2001 Annual Meeting of Cana-

dian Council of Forest Ministers (CCFM), and revolves

around “incorporating wood fibre production through the

establishment of plantations of fast growing high-yield tree

species

, and intensified silviculture in previously harvested,

or second growth, forest areas.”

[David A. Duffus and Amy Strumolo]

ESOURCES

OOKS

The State of Canada’s Forests, 1991. Second Report to Parliament. Ottawa:

Canadian Forest Service, 1992.

RGANIZATIONS

Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 580 Booth Street,

8th Floor, Ottawa, OntarioCanada K1A 0E4 (613) 947-7341, Fax: (613)

947-7397, Email: cfs-scf@nrcan.gc.ca, <http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/

cfs-scf>

Canadian Parks Service

The Canadian Parks Service (CPS) is the government agency

charged with fulfilling the statutes and policies of Canada’s

national parks. The first

national park

was established in

Banff, Alberta, in 1885, although parks were not institution-

alized in Canada until 1911. The original policy and program

established national parks to protect characteristic aspects

of Canada’s natural heritage, and, at the same time, cater

to the benefit, enjoyment, and education of its people.

The National Parks Act of 1930 required parliamen-

tary approval of parks, prohibited

hunting

, mining, and

exploration, and limited forest harvesting. Other federal stat-

utes gave control over lands and resources to the provinces,

which meant land assembly for park development could not

proceed without intergovernmental agreement. An amend-

ment to the Parks Act increased the Park Service’s ability

to enforce regulations and levy meaningful penalties.

In 1971 the park system was expanded to include

examples of all 39 terrestrial natural regions of Canada.

Currently, 25 regions are represented by 39 parks. The Cana-

206

dian government has pledged to develop sites in the re-

maining 14 regions in upcoming years. The CPS hopes

that national parks will eventually encompass 12 percent of

Canada’s land base; they currently occupy only 1.8 percent.

Canada’s four marine coasts have been classified into

29 regions, all of which are to be represented in a marine

parks program. One site has been formally established, while

four others are being considered. The CPS mandate was

amended in 1986 to share control of marine parks with two

other federal agencies, which manage fisheries and marine

transportation

Current park policy emphasizes the maintenance of

ecological integrity

over tourism and

recreation

. Much

conflict, however, has centered on development within park

boundaries. Townsites, highways, ski resorts, and

golf

courses

provide public enjoyment, but conflict with the

protective mandate of the parks’ charter. Commercial and

recreational fishing,

logging

, and

trapping

have also been

allowed, despite legal prohibitions. In 1992, the Canadian

Parks and

Wilderness Society

and the Sierra Legal Defense

Fund successfully sued the Canadian government to stop

logging in Wood Buffalo National Park, a protected

habitat

for both the endangered

whooping crane

and wood

bison

[Amy A. Strumolo]

Canadian Wildlife Service

The Canadian

Wildlife

Service (CWS) was established in

1947. Until 1971 it was governed by the federal government’s

Parks Branch in the Department of Indian and Northern

Development. Since 1971 it has been a branch of

Environ-

ment Canada

, most recently under the

Conservation

and

Protection division. The Service is served by five regional

offices across Canada and is headquartered in Hull, Quebec.

There are four branches within the CWS: the Migratory

Birds and Conservation Branch; the North American Wa-

terfowl Management Plan Implementation Branch; the

Wildlife Toxicology and Surveys Branch/National Wildlife

Research Centre; and the Program Analysis and Co-ordina-

tion Branch.

Wildlife matters were delegated to the provinces by

the Canadian constitution, and responsibility is generally in

the hands of provincial administrations. Federal-provincial

cooperation was facilitated through meetings of the Federal-

Provincial Wildlife Ministers Conferences, ongoing since

1922 and an annual event since 1945. Through those ongo-

ing discussions, federal wildlife policy has developed mainly

around areas of transboundary issues and problems deemed

in the national interest. Currently, the CWS’s primary re-

sponsibility is to enforce the Migratory Birds Convention

Act, the Canada Wildlife Act, the Convention on Interna-