Gates A.E., Ritchie D. Encyclopedia of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
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312 Appendix B
a thin layer at Kingstown to two feet or more at George-
town. The crops are ruined, nothing green can be seen, the
streets of Georgetown are cumbered with snowdriftlike
heaps of ashes, and ashes rest so heavily on the roofs that
in several cases they have caused them to fall in. There will
soon be 5,000 destitute persons in need of assistance from
the government, which is already doing everything pos-
sible to relieve the sufferers. There are a hundred injured
people in the hospital at Georgetown, gangs of men are
searching for the dead or rapidly burying them in trenches,
and all that can be done under the circumstances is being
accomplished.
The arrival here of the first detachment of the Ambu-
lance Corps, which brought sufferers from Georgetown,
caused a sensation. This batch consisted of a hundred per-
sons, whose charred bodies exhaled fetid odors, and whose
loathsome faces made even the hospital attendants shud-
der. All these burned persons were suffering fearfully from
thirst and uttering, when strong enough to do so, agoniz-
ing cries for water. It is doubtful whether any of the whole
party will recover.
While the outbreak of the volcano on the island of
Martinique killed more people outright, more territory has
been ruined in St. Vincent, hence there is greater destitu-
tion here. The injured persons were horribly burned by the
hot grit, which was driven along with tremendous veloc-
ity. Twenty-six persons who sought refuge in a room ten
feet by twelve were all killed. One person was brained by
a huge stone some nine miles from the crater.
Rough coffins are being made to receive the bodies of
the victims. The hospital here is filled with dying people.
Fifty injured persons are lying on the floor of that build-
ing, as there are no beds for their accommodation, though
cots are being rapidly constructed of boards. . . .
Since midnight on Tuesday the subterranean detona-
tions here have ceased, and the Soufriere on Wednesday
relapsed, apparently, into perfect repose, no smoke rising
from the crater, and the fissures emitting no vapor. The
stunted vegetation that formerly adorned the slopes of the
mountain has disappeared, having given place to gray-col-
ored lava, which greets the eye on every side. The atmo-
sphere is dry. Rain would be welcome, as there is a great
deal of dust in the air, which is disagreeable and irritating
to the throats and eyes, and is causing the merchants to
put all their drygoods under cover. . . . [People] who have
remained on the estates are half-starved, and the few Carib
survivors are leaving their caves and pillaging abandoned
dwelling houses and shops. . . .
The report that the volcanic lake which occupied the
top of the mountain has disappeared, now appears to be
confirmed. A sea of lava, emitting sulfurous fumes, now
apparently occupies the place, and several new craters
have been formed. The last time the volcano showed activ-
ity, on Tuesday last, the craters, old and new, and numer-
ous fissures in the mountain sides discharged hot vapor,
deep subterranean murmurings were heard, the ground
trembled at times, from the center of the volcano huge vol-
umes of steam rose like gigantic pine trees toward the sky,
and a dense black smoke, mingling with the steam, issued
from a new and active crater, forming an immense pall
over the northern hills, lowering into the valleys and then
rising and spreading until it enveloped the whole island in
a peculiar gray mist. . . .
The sulphurous vapors, which still exhale all over
the island, are increasing the sickness and mortality
among the surviving inhabitants, and are causing suffer-
ing among the new arrivals. . . .
The stench in the afflicted districts is terrible beyond
description. Nearly all the huts left standing are filled with
dead bodies. In some cases disinfectants and the usual
means of disposing of the dead are useless, and cremation
has been resorted to. When it is possible the bodies are
dragged with ropes to the trenches and are there hastily
covered up, quicklime being used when available. Many of
the dead bodies were so covered with dust that they were
not discovered until walked upon by visitors, or by the
relieving officers or their assistants. . . .
The volcano resumed activity on the night of May 18.
Earthquakes were felt on the island, and smoke emanat-
ed from fissures and craters on Soufriere. As churchgoers
returned from services around 8:30
P.M., one account of
the eruption says, “an alarming luminous cloud suddenly
ascended many miles high in the north of the island, and
drifted sluggishly to the northeast. Incessant lightning fell
on the mountain, and one severe flash seemed to strike
about three miles from Kingstown. The thunderous rum-
blings in the craters lasted for two hours and then dimin-
ished until they became mere murmurings. During the
remainder of the night the volcano was quiet, though
ashes fell from 10 o’clock until midnight. The inhabitants
were frenzied with fear at the time of the outbreak, dread-
ing a repetition of the catastrophe which had caused such
terrible loss of life on the island. They ran from the streets
into the open country, crying and praying for preservation
from another calamity. No one on the island of St. Vincent
slept that night. . . .
The continuous agitation of the volcano and the
absence of rain caused the vicinity of the afflicted villages to
look like portions of the Desert of Sahara. A thick, smoky
cloud overspread the island, all business was suspended, the
streets were empty and everyone was terror-stricken. The
feeling of suspense grew painful. People passed their time
gazing at the northern sky, where the thunder clouds gath-
ered and the mournful roaring of the volcano was heard.
Ashes and pumice fell slowly in the [outlying] districts, and
a new reign of terror existed in the island. But during the
next day the volcanic disturbances moderated, and some
degree of calm returned to the afflicted islanders.”
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FURTHER READING AND WEB SITES
Because the literature on earthquakes and volcanoes is so
vast, the following list represents only a select bibliography
of relevant materials on the subject.
Aaronson, S. “The Social Cost of Earthquake Prediction.”
New Scientist 3/17, 1977, 634–636.
Abbott, P. Natural Disasters, 2nd Edition, Boston: WCB/
McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Adams, W., ed. Tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. Honolulu:
East-West Center Press, 1970.
American Geological Institute. Glossary of Geology, 1999.
Anderson, C. “Animals, Earthquakes and Eruptions.” Field
Museum of Natural History Bulletin 44, 5 (1973): 9–11.
Ballard, R., and J. Grassle. “Return to Oases of the Deep.”
National Geographic, November 1979, 686–705.
Barnea, J. “Geothermal Power.” Scientific American, January
1972, 70–77.
Bird, J., and B. Isacks, eds. Plate Tectonics: Selected Papers
from the Journal of Geophysical Research. Washington,
D.C.: American Geophysical Union, 1972.
Blong, R. J. Volcanic Hazards. Orlando, Fla.: Academic
Press, 1984.
Bolt, B. Earthquakes: A Primer. New York: Freeman, 1978.
Bolt, B., W. Horn, G. Macdonald, and R. Scott. Geological
Hazards. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1975.
Booth, B. “Predicting Eruptions.” New Scientist, September
9, 1976, 526–528.
Boyd, F., and H. Meyer, eds. Kimberlites, Diatremes and
Diamonds: Their Geology, Petrology and Geochemis-
try. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union,
1979.
Bradford, M., and R. S. Carmichael. Natural Disasters, Vol-
umes I–III. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press, 2001.
Briggs, P. Will California Fall into the Sea? New York: McKay,
1972.
Bullard, F. Volcanoes in History, in Theory, in Eruption.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1962.
———. Volcanoes of the Earth. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1984.
Burke, K., and J. Wilson. “Hot Spots on the Earth’s Surface.”
Scientific American, August 1976, 46–57.
Clague, D., and C. Dalrymple. “The Hawaiian-Emperor Vol-
canic Chain.” Volcanism in Hawaii. U.S. Geological Sur-
vey, Professional Paper 1350, 1987, 5–54.
Cox, A., ed. Plate Tectonics and Geomagnetic Reversals.
New York: Freeman, 1973.
Crandell, D., and D. Mullineaux. Potential Hazards from
Future Eruptions of Mount St. Helens Volcano. U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, Bulletin 1383-C. 1978.
Davis, L. Natural Disasters. Rev. ed. New York: Facts On
File, 2002.
Decker, R., and B. Decker. Volcanoes. Rev. ed. New York:
Freeman, 1989.
Decker, R., T. Wright, and P. Stauffer, eds. Volcanism in
Hawaii. U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1350.
2 vols. 1987.
Easterbrook, D. J. Surface Process and Landforms. Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1993.
Eiby, G. Earthquakes. Auckland, New Zealand: Heineman,
1980.
Fisher, R., and H.-U. Schmincke. Pyroclastic Rocks. Berlin:
Springer Verlag, 1984.
Francis, P. Volcanoes. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books,
1976.
———. Volcanoes: A Planetary Perspective. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1994.
Fried, J. Life along the San Andreas Fault. New York: Satur-
day Review Press, 1973.
Gold, T., and S. Sofer. “The Deep-Earth-Gas Hypothesis.”
Scientific American, June 1980, 154–161.
Green, J., and N. Short, eds. Volcanic Landforms and Surface
Features. New York: Springer Verlag, 1971.
Gutenberg, B., and C. Richter. Seismicity of the Earth and
Associated Phenomena. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1954.
APPENDIX C
313
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314 Appendix C
Haas, J., and D. Mileti. Socioeconomic Impact of Earthquake
Prediction on Government, Business and Industry. Boul-
der: Institute of Behavioral Sciences, University of Colo-
rado, 1976.
Halacy, D. Earthquakes: A Natural History. Indianapolis:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1974.
Heck, N. H. “Japanese Earthquakes.” Bulletin of the Seismo-
logical Society of America 34, 1994, 117–136.
Heezen, B., and C. Hollister. The Face of the Deep. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
Iacopi, R. Earthquake Country. Menlo Park, Calif.: Lane, 1973.
International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the
Earth’s Interior. Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World.
Parts 1–22. Rome: Int’l. Assn. of Volcanology, 1951–75.
Kerr, R. “Earthquakes: Prediction Proving Elusive.” Science,
April 28, 1978, 419–421.
Kruger, P., and C. Otte, eds. Geothermal Energy. Stanford,
Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1973.
Latter, J. H. “Natural Disasters.” The Advancement of Sci-
ence 25, 1969, 363–380.
Lawson, A. The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906.
Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission.
Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1908.
Leet, L., and F. Leet. Earthquake: Discoveries in Seismology.
New York: Dell, 1964.
Lipman, P., and D. Mullineaux, eds. The 1980 Eruptions of
Mount St. Helens. U.S. Geological Survey, Professional
Paper 1250, 1981.
Luhr, J. F., and T. Simkin. Paricutín: The Volcano Born in a
Mexican Cornfield. Phoenix: Geoscience Press, 1993.
Macdonald, G. Volcanoes. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice
Hall, 1972.
Macdonald, G., A. Abbott, and F. Peterson. Volcanoes in the
Sea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983.
McClelland, L., T. Simkin, M. Summers, E. Nielsen, and T.
C. Stein. Global Volcanism 1975–1985. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1989.
Menard, H. Marine Geology of the Pacific. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1964.
Moores, E. M., ed. Shaping the Earth: Tectonics of the Con-
tinents and Oceans. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1990.
Morris, C. The Volcano’s Deadly Work. New York: Scull,
1902.
Muffler, L., ed. Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the
United States—1978. U.S. Geological Survey, Circular
790, 1979.
Nabavi, M. S. “Historical Earthquakes in Iran, c. 300
B.C.–
A.D. 1900.” Journal of the Earth and Space Physics 7,
1978, 70–117.
Newhall, C., and D. Dzurisin. Historical Unrest at Large:
Calderas of the World. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1855, 1988.
Oakeshott, G. California’s Changing Landscapes. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1978.
———. Volcanoes and Earthquakes. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1976.
Panel on Earthquake Prediction of the Committee on Seismol-
ogy. Predicting Earthquakes. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy of Sciences, 1976.
Papazachos, B., and Papazacou, C. The Earthquakes of
Greece. Thessaloniki, Greece, 1997.
Park, C., and R. MacDiarmid. Ore Deposits. New York:
Freeman, 1975.
Paterson, D. “Methane from the Bowels of the Earth.” New
Scientist 6/29, 1978, 896–897.
Press, F., and R. Siever. Earth. New York: Freeman, 1986.
Richter, C. Elementary Seismology. San Francisco: Freeman,
1958.
Rikitake, T. Earthquake Prediction. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
1976.
Ritchie, D. The Ring of Fire. New York: Atheneum, 1981.
———. Superquake! New York: Crown, 1988.
Rona, P. “Plate Tectonics and Mineral Resources.” Scientific
American, July 1973, 86–95.
Rybach, L., and L. Muffler. Geothermal Systems: Principles
and Case Histories. New York: Wiley, 1981.
Sigurdsson, H., B. Houghton, S. R. McNutt, H. Rymer, and
J. Stix, eds. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. San Diego: Aca-
demic Press, 1999.
Simkin, T., and L. Siebert. Volcanoes of the World. Phoenix:
Geoscience Press, 1994.
Simkin, T., D. J. Unger, R. I. Tilling, P. R. Vogt, and H. Spall,
compilers. This Dynamic Planet: World Map of Volca-
noes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters and Plate Tectonics.
U.S. Geological Survey, 1994.
Smith, F. The Seas in Motion. New York: Crowell, 1973.
Smith, R. “Waiting for the Other Plate to Drop in Califor-
nia.” Science 2/24, 1978, 797.
Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volcanism Network. “Sum-
mary of Recent Activity.” Bulletin of Volcanology, Con-
tinuing Volumes and Years.
Stearns, H. Geology of the State of Hawaii. 2d ed. Palo Alto,
Calif.: Pacific Books, 1985.
Steiribrugge, K. Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Tsunamis. New
York: Scandia America Group, 1982.
Stommel, H., and E. Stommel. “The Year without a Sum-
mer.” Scientific American, June 1979, 176–180.
Sugimura, A., and S. Uyeda. Island Arcs: Japan and Its Envi-
rons.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1973.
Sullivan, R., with D. Mustart and J. Galehouse. “Living in
Earthquake Country: A Survey of Residents Living along
the San Andreas Fault.” California Geology, January
1977, 3–8.
Tarling, D., and M. Tarling. Continental Drift. New York:
Pelican, 1974.
Tazieff, H. When the Earth Trembles. New York: Harcourt,
Brace and World, 1964.
Thomas, G., and M. Witts. The San Francisco Earthquake.
New York: Stein and Day, 1971.
Thorarinsson, S. Surtsey. New York: Viking, 1967.
Tilling, R. I. Volcanoes. Denver: U.S. Geological Survey
Information Circular, 1996.
U.S. Geological Survey. The San Fernando, California, Earth-
quake of February 9, 1971. Professional Paper 733, 1971.
Uyeda, S. The New View of the Earth. New York: Freeman,
1978.
Verney, P. The Earthquake Handbook. London: Paddington,
1979.
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Appendix C 315
Wegener, A. The Origins of the Oceans and Continents. New
York: Methuen, 1967.
Wexier, H. “Volcanoes and World Climate.” Scientific Amer-
ican, April 1952, 74–81.
Williams, H., and A. McBirney. Volcanology. San Francisco:
Freeman, Cooper, 1979.
Wood, C. A., and J. Kienle. Volcanoes of North America:
United States and Canada: New York: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1990.
Wyllie, P. “The Earth’s Mantle.” Scientific American, March
1975, 50–57.
Yeats, R. S., K. Sieh, and C. R. Allen. The Geology of Earth-
quakes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Ziony, J., ed. Evaluating Earthquake Hazards in the Los
Angeles Region—An Earth-Science Perspective. U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, Professional Paper 1360, 1985.
INTERNET RESOURCES
There are many Web sites available for both volcanoes and
earthquakes. Search engines can lead you to them. Below are
lists of some of the better resources and sites that can connect
you to even more resources. These lists emphasize the major
government sites, several exceptional sites, and sites with sub-
stantive links.
General
American Geological Institute. URL: http://www.agiweb.org.
Accessed November 30, 2005. Contains extensive infor-
mation on geology, including earthquakes and volcanoes
at a technical and non-technical level.
American Geophysical Union. URL: http://www.agu.org.
Accessed November 30, 2005. The premier academic geo-
physical organization in the United States. Contains tech-
nical information on earthquakes and volcanoes.
Geohazards, U.S. Geological Survey. URL: http://geohazards.
cr.usgs.gov. Accessed November 30, 2005. The best repos-
itory of earthquake and volcano information available.
Most of the specific earthquake and volcano sites can be
accessed from here.
Geological Society of America. URL: http://www.geosociety.
org. Accessed November 30, 2005. The premier academic
geologic organization in the United States. Contains tech-
nical information on earthquakes and volcanoes.
National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Agency. URL: http://www.ngdc.noaa.
gov/seg/hazard/hazards.shtml. Accessed November 30,
2005. Outstanding repository of information and photos
of natural disasters worldwide.
Earthquakes
ASC: Amateur Seismic Centre. URL: http://asc-india.org.
Accessed November 1, 2005. Contains detailed informa-
tion and accounts of significant earthquakes from India,
Pakistan, and Nepal as well as images.
Earthquake Hazards Program. U.S. Geological Survey. URL:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov. Accessed November 11, 2005.
Information on current seismic activity, historical earth-
quakes, regions, educational materials, tables of strongest
earthquakes, plate tectonics, and virtually all important
links.
EQIIS: Earthquake Image Information System, University
of California at Berkeley. URL: http://nisee.berkeley.edu/
eqiis.html. Accessed November 11, 2005. Contains a cata-
log of primarily historical earthquake images from around
the world.
Significant Earthquakes Database. National Geophysical
Data Center of National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Agency. URL: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/hazard/sig/
hazard/sig_srch_idb.shtml. Accessed November 11, 2005.
Contains an extensive, easily searchable database of all
reported significant earthquakes, including all statistics,
pertinent information, and primary references.
Volcanoes
Alaskan Volcano Observatory, U.S. Geological Survey. URL:
http://www.avo.alaska.edu. Accessed November 30, 2005.
Contains real-time monitoring (including Web cams) and
historical data for volcanic activity in Alaska.
Cascades Volcano Observatory, U.S. Geological Survey.
URL: http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov. Accessed November 30,
2005. Contains real-time monitoring and historical data
for volcanic activity in the Cascade Range of Washington,
Oregon, and California.
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, U.S. Geological Survey.
URL: http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov. Accessed November 30,
2005. Contains real-time monitoring and historical data
for volcanic activity in Hawaii.
Volcanoes of the World, Global Volcanism Program of the
Smithsonian Institution. URL: http://www.volcano.si.edu/
world. Accessed November 11, 2005. Information and
images of most of the volcanoes of the world and the pro-
cesses that control them.
Volcano World. URL: http://www.volcano.und.nodak.edu.
Accessed November 11, 2005. Contains reports and imag-
es of many of the world’s volcanoes in simple language
and also has educational materials.
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317
The Deadliest Earthquakes
Date Location Deaths Magnitude
January 23, 1556 Shansi, China 830,000
July 27, 1976 Tangshan, China 655,000 8.2
December 26, 2004 Sumatra 283,106 9
August 9, 1138 Aleppo, Syria 230,000
May 22, 1927 Xining, China 200,000 7.9
December 22, 856+ Damghan, Iran 200,000
December 16, 1920 Gansu, China 200,000 8.6
March 23, 893+ Ardabil, Iran 150,000
September 1, 1923 Kanto, Japan 143,000 7.9
October 5, 1948 USSR (Turkmenistan) 110,000 7.3
December 28, 1908 Messina, Italy 70,000–100,000 7.2
September, 1290 Chihli, China 100,000
October 8, 2005 Muzafarrabad, Pakistan 86,000 7.6
November, 1667 Shemakha, Caucasia 80,000
November 18, 1727 Tabriz, Iran 77,000
November 1, 1755 Lisbon, Portugal 70,000 8.7
December 25, 1932 Gansu, China 70,000 7.6
May 31, 1970 Peru 66,000 7.9
1268 Silicia, Asia Minor 60,000
January 11, 1693 Sicily, Italy 60,000
May 30, 1935 Quetta, Pakistan 30,000–60,000 7.5
February 4, 1783 Calabria, Italy 50,000
June 20, 1990 Gilan, Iran 50,000 7.7
Table modified from the U.S. Geological Survey.
+ Uncertain date of main event
APPENDIX D
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The Deadliest Volcanoes
Deaths Volcano Year
92,000 Tambora, Indonesia 1815
36,417 Krakatoa, Indonesia 1883
29,025 Mount Pelée, Martinique 1902
25,000 Ruiz, Colombia 1985
14,300 Unzen, Japan 1792
9,350 Laki, Iceland 1783
5,110 Kelut, Indonesia 1919
4,011 Galunggung, Indonesia 1882
3,500 Vesuvius, Italy 1631
3,360 Vesuvius, Italy 79
2,957 Papandayan, Indonesia 1772
2,942 Lamington, Papua New Guinea 1951
2,000 El Chichón, Mexico 1982
1,680 Sofrière, St. Vincent 1902
1,475 Oshima, Japan 1741
1,377 Asama, Japan 1783
1,335 Taal, Philippines 1911
1,200 Mayon, Philippines 1814
1,184 Agung, Indonesia 1963
1,000 Cotopaxi, Ecuador 1877
800 Pinatubo, Philippines 1991
700 Komagatake, Japan 1640
700 Ruiz, Colombia 1845
500 Hibok-Hibok, Philippines 1951
APPENDIX E
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321
The Highest Magnitude Earthquakes
Location Date Magnitude
1 Chile May 22, 1960 9.5
2 Prince William Sound, Alaska March 28, 1964 9.2
3 Andreanof Islands, Alaska March 9, 1957 9.1
4 Kamchatka November 4, 1952 9
5 Sumatra December 26, 2004 9
6 off the Coast of Ecuador January 31, 1906 8.8
7 Rat Islands, Alaska February 4, 1965 8.7
7 off the Coast of Sumatra March 28, 2005 8.7
9 Assam-Tibet August 15, 1950 8.6
10 Kamchatka February 3, 1923 8.5
10 Banda Sea, Indonesia February 1, 1938 8.5
10 Kuril Islands October 13, 1963 8.5
APPENDIX F
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